Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary action of insulin in the bloodstream?
What is the primary action of insulin in the bloodstream?
Neuromodulators enhance the activity of other neurons.
Neuromodulators enhance the activity of other neurons.
True
What type of receptors are found in intestinal blood vessels and cause vasoconstriction?
What type of receptors are found in intestinal blood vessels and cause vasoconstriction?
Alpha receptors
Lipophobic ligands typically bind to __________ receptors leading to a rapid cellular response.
Lipophobic ligands typically bind to __________ receptors leading to a rapid cellular response.
Signup and view all the answers
Match the type of reflex to its characteristic:
Match the type of reflex to its characteristic:
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes how the stimulus intensity is coded in neural reflexes?
Which of the following best describes how the stimulus intensity is coded in neural reflexes?
Signup and view all the answers
Epinephrine binds to only one type of receptor across the body.
Epinephrine binds to only one type of receptor across the body.
Signup and view all the answers
Describe the general sequence of events following lipophilic ligand binding to intracellular receptors.
Describe the general sequence of events following lipophilic ligand binding to intracellular receptors.
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pump?
What is the primary role of the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pump?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is a characteristic of peptide hormones?
Which of the following is a characteristic of peptide hormones?
Signup and view all the answers
Steroid hormones are synthesized in advance and stored in the cell before release.
Steroid hormones are synthesized in advance and stored in the cell before release.
Signup and view all the answers
Increased K⁺ permeability depolarizes the membrane.
Increased K⁺ permeability depolarizes the membrane.
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure is responsible for hormone secretion?
Which structure is responsible for hormone secretion?
Signup and view all the answers
The medulla oblongata is primarily responsible for visual and auditory reflexes.
The medulla oblongata is primarily responsible for visual and auditory reflexes.
Signup and view all the answers
List the four criteria that define a chemical signal as a hormone.
List the four criteria that define a chemical signal as a hormone.
Signup and view all the answers
What happens to a cell when Na⁺ permeability increases during an action potential?
What happens to a cell when Na⁺ permeability increases during an action potential?
Signup and view all the answers
Peptide hormones activate _____ pathways, leading to rapid physiological responses.
Peptide hormones activate _____ pathways, leading to rapid physiological responses.
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of the hypothalamus?
What is the primary function of the hypothalamus?
Signup and view all the answers
Gap junctions allow for direct cytoplasmic communication between __________ cells.
Gap junctions allow for direct cytoplasmic communication between __________ cells.
Signup and view all the answers
Match the type of hormone to their primary characteristics:
Match the type of hormone to their primary characteristics:
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following is not a form of local communication?
Which of the following is not a form of local communication?
Signup and view all the answers
The _______ lobe is responsible for processing sound information.
The _______ lobe is responsible for processing sound information.
Signup and view all the answers
Match the following brain regions with their primary functions:
Match the following brain regions with their primary functions:
Signup and view all the answers
What is the typical location of receptors for steroid hormones?
What is the typical location of receptors for steroid hormones?
Signup and view all the answers
Match the type of communication with its description:
Match the type of communication with its description:
Signup and view all the answers
Which area is involved in language comprehension?
Which area is involved in language comprehension?
Signup and view all the answers
Decreased Cl⁻ permeability may depolarize the membrane if its equilibrium potential is more negative than the resting potential.
Decreased Cl⁻ permeability may depolarize the membrane if its equilibrium potential is more negative than the resting potential.
Signup and view all the answers
The nervous system plays no role in endocrine reflexes.
The nervous system plays no role in endocrine reflexes.
Signup and view all the answers
What are the two forms of long-distance communication?
What are the two forms of long-distance communication?
Signup and view all the answers
Explain how peptide hormones differ from steroid hormones in terms of synthesis.
Explain how peptide hormones differ from steroid hormones in terms of synthesis.
Signup and view all the answers
The primary motor cortex is located in the occipital lobe.
The primary motor cortex is located in the occipital lobe.
Signup and view all the answers
What term describes the process of sensory receptors converting physical stimuli into electrical signals?
What term describes the process of sensory receptors converting physical stimuli into electrical signals?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of control does the somatic motor division provide?
What type of control does the somatic motor division provide?
Signup and view all the answers
The sympathetic division uses acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter for both preganglionic and postganglionic neurons.
The sympathetic division uses acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter for both preganglionic and postganglionic neurons.
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of the parasympathetic division?
What is the primary function of the parasympathetic division?
Signup and view all the answers
In excitation-contraction coupling, calcium binds to __________, causing a conformational change.
In excitation-contraction coupling, calcium binds to __________, causing a conformational change.
Signup and view all the answers
Match the following divisions with their ganglia location:
Match the following divisions with their ganglia location:
Signup and view all the answers
Which receptor type is primarily associated with the postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division?
Which receptor type is primarily associated with the postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division?
Signup and view all the answers
In the contractile cycle, cross-bridge formation occurs after calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
In the contractile cycle, cross-bridge formation occurs after calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Signup and view all the answers
What are the two neurons involved in the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?
What are the two neurons involved in the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of Ca²⁺ in NMDA receptor activation?
What is the primary role of Ca²⁺ in NMDA receptor activation?
Signup and view all the answers
The blood-brain barrier only allows water-soluble compounds to cross into the brain.
The blood-brain barrier only allows water-soluble compounds to cross into the brain.
Signup and view all the answers
What structures produce cerebrospinal fluid?
What structures produce cerebrospinal fluid?
Signup and view all the answers
Cerebrospinal fluid is reabsorbed into venous circulation through the ________ in the dural sinuses.
Cerebrospinal fluid is reabsorbed into venous circulation through the ________ in the dural sinuses.
Signup and view all the answers
Match the following structures with their primary functions:
Match the following structures with their primary functions:
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following structures is a part of the limbic system?
Which of the following structures is a part of the limbic system?
Signup and view all the answers
The arachnoid membrane is located between the dura mater and the pia mater.
The arachnoid membrane is located between the dura mater and the pia mater.
Signup and view all the answers
What are the major anatomical subdivisions of the brain mentioned?
What are the major anatomical subdivisions of the brain mentioned?
Signup and view all the answers
Study Notes
Chapter 1
- Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of an organism and its parts.
- Levels of organization range from atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems to organisms.
Chapter 1 - Homeostasis
-
Homeostasis is maintaining a stable internal environment despite external changes.
-
Disease occurs when homeostasis is disrupted for long periods.
-
Homeostasis is a dynamic steady state, not static equilibrium.
-
Negative feedback: A process to reverse a change and return to a set point (e.g., regulating body temperature).
-
Positive feedback: A process to amplify or increase a change, moving further away from a set point (e.g., childbirth).
-
Feedforward control: Processes anticipating changes and activating mechanisms in advance (e.g., salivating before eating).
Chapter 5
- Osmotic equilibrium: Equal solute concentration on both sides of the cell membrane.
- Chemical disequilibrium: Uneven distribution of solutes across the cell membrane (e.g., higher Na+ outside, K+ inside).
- Electrical disequilibrium: Ion distribution creates an electrical potential across the cell membrane.
Chapter 5 - Membrane Transport
- Simple diffusion: Movement of substances down their concentration gradient without energy or proteins.
- Protein-mediated transport: Movement of substances with the help of carrier proteins, can be active (requires energy) or passive (doesn't require energy).
- Vesicular transport: Movement in vesicles (active transport).
Chapter 6
- Local communication: Occurs over short distances (e.g., gap junctions, contact-dependent signals, diffusing chemicals).
- Long-distance communication: Occurs over longer distances (e.g., blood transport, endocrine system, nervous system).
Chapter 6 - Hormone Signaling
- Lipophilic ligand binding: Ligand diffuses across the membrane, binds to intracellular receptor, changes receptor conformation, binds to DNA, changes gene expression. Slower response.
- Lipophobic ligand binding: Ligand binds to surface receptor, activates intracellular signaling pathways, activates second messengers, changes in ion channel and enzyme activity. Faster response.
Chapter 6 - Receptor Types
- Receptor channels: Open or close in response to ligand binding, changes ion flow (e.g., nicotinic acetylcholine receptors).
- G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): Activate intracellular G proteins, causing second messengers to be produced (e.g., adrenergic receptors).
- Receptor-enzyme complexes: Contain enzyme activity or are linked to enzymes (e.g., receptor tyrosine kinases like the insulin receptor).
- Integrin receptors: Bind to extracellular matrix proteins and change the cytoskeleton (e.g., integrins in cell adhesion).
Chapter 6 - Reflex Control Pathway
- Stimulus detected--> sensor --> input signal to integrating center --> output signal --> target --> response to restore homeostasis.
Chapter 7 - Endocrine System
- Four characteristics of a hormone: Secreted into blood, travels to distant targets, very low concentrations, affect growth/development, homeostasis, or metabolism.
- Peptide hormones: Made in advance, stored in vesicles, released by exocytosis, rapid response, act on cell surface.
- Steroid hormones: Synthesized on demand, not stored, diffuse across membrane, slow response, act on intracellular receptors.
Chapter 7 - Pituitary Hormones
- Pituitary hormones: List of 6 anterior pituitary hormones, hormones that control its release and their primary targets.
Chapter 7 - Feedback Mechanisms
- Long-loop negative feedback: Hormones from the target endocrine gland inhibit the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus.
Chapter 7 - Endocrine Pathologies
- Hypersecretion: Excess hormone production.
- Hyposecretion: Deficiency of hormone production.
- Target response abnormalities: Cells failing to respond.
Chapter 8 - Nervous System Organization
- Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) branches.
Chapter 8 - Glial Cells
- Astrocytes: Maintain blood-brain barrier; provide structural support and regulate ions, neurotransmitters.
- Oligodendrocytes: Myelinate CNS axons; increasing signal transmission speed.
- Microglia: Act as immune cells; removing debris and pathogens.
- Ependymal Cells: One source of neural stem cells.
- Schwann Cells: Myelinate PNS axons; assist in repair.
- Satellite Cells: Surround neuronal cell bodies in ganglia; provide support and nutrient exchange.
Chapter 8 - Electrical Signals
- Graded potentials: Variable strength, localized, no minimum level required to initiate, can sum.
- Action potentials: All or none, threshold, propagate down axon, cannot sum.
Chapter 8 - Refractory Periods
- Absolute refractory period: No new action potential possible during this period.
- Relative refractory period: New action potential possible with a stronger stimulus.
Chapter 8 - Synaptic Communication
- Ionotropic receptors: Ligand-gated channels, fast synaptic transmission (e.g., AMPA receptors).
- Metabotropic receptors: G-protein coupled receptors, slow, long-lasting effects.
- Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers (e.g., glutamate, GABA, dopamine).
- Neuromodulators: Influence neurotransmitter release or receptor sensitivity.
Chapter 8 - Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
- Initial signal: Glutamate binds to AMPA and NMDA receptors.
- AMPA activation: Sodium influx, depolarization.
- NMDA activation: Calcium influx, enhances glutamate release.
Chapter 9 - Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
- Formation: Choroid plexus in ventricles; selective filtration of plasma.
- Distribution: Lateral ventricles → third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, fourth ventricle, subarachnoid space, reabsorbed into venous circulation (dural sinuses)
- Functions: Buoyancy (reduces brain weight by floating), protection, homeostasis, transport.
Chapter 9 - Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
- Structure: Endothelial cells joined by tight junctions, astrocytic end-feet, basement membrane.
- Functions: Selective permeability; protects the brain; maintains homeostasis.
Chapter 10 - Sensory Receptors
- Transduction: Converts physical stimulus to electrical signal.
- Threshold: Minimum stimulus strength to produce a response.
- Receptive field: Specific area where stimulus activates a sensory neuron.
- Receptor potential: Graded potential in sensory receptors in response to stimuli.
Chapter 10 - Sensory Coding
- Modality: Type of sensory neuron activated.
- Location: Receptive fields activated.
- Intensity: Number of receptors activated, frequency of action potentials.
- Duration: How long action potentials are generated, receptor adaptation.
Chapter 10 - Receptor Adaptation
- Tonic receptors: Slowly adapting; respond for duration of stimulus (e.g., pain).
- Phasic receptors: Rapidly adapting; respond only at onset and offset of stimulus (e.g., pressure).
Chapter 10 - Pain and Itch
- Nociceptors: Specialized sensory neurons; stimulated by harmful stimuli (mechanical, thermal, or chemical); relays signals to spinal cord.
- Pain: Transmitted via fast (sharp/localized) and slow (dull/aching) fibers. Neurotransmitters like substance P and glutamate relay pain.
- Itch: Mediated by skin nociceptors, often triggered by histamine.
Chapter 11 - Autonomic Nervous System
- Adrenal medulla: Inner part of adrenal glands; releases hormones (epinephrine/norepinephrine). Location is atop kidneys
- Epinephrine/norepinephrine: Released directly into bloodstream; systemic effect (epinephrine), localized effect (norepinephrine)
Chapter 11 - Neuromuscular Junction
- Components: Presynaptic terminal, synaptic cleft, postsynaptic membrane (motor end plate).
- Function: Action potential in motor neuron releases acetylcholine (ACh) -> binds to nicotinic ACh receptors on muscle -> initiates muscle contraction.
Chapter 11 - Somatic, Sympathetic, Para-Sympathetic Divisions
- Compare anatomy, neurotransmitters, receptors, functions of each nervous system division
- Somatic: Single neuron, CNS to skeletal muscle, voluntary, ACh
- Sympathetic: Two neurons, use ACh and NE, preganglionic ACh, postganglionic NE, involuntary (fight or flight)
- Parasympathetic: Two neurons, pre and postganglionic use ACh, involuntary (rest and digest)
Chapter 12 - Excitation-Contraction Coupling
- Action potential in muscle fiber
- Calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Calcium binding to troponin, allowing myosin-binding to actin
- Myosin power stroke, cross-bridging
- Calcium removal, relaxation
Chapter 12 - Muscle Length-Tension
- Optimal length: Ideal overlap of actin and myosin, maximum tension.
- Overstretched: Reduced overlap.
- Overly shortened: Interference among filaments.
Chapter 13 - Neural Reflex Pathways
- Classification by: efferent division, CNS integration area, reflexes, number of neurons.
- Stretches reflex: Monosynaptic stretch, sensory neuron → spinal cord → motor neuron → contraction of stretched muscle. Includes reciprocal inhibition.
- Flexion (withdrawal) reflex: Reflex that withdraws limb from harmful stimulus. Associated with crossed extensor reflex.
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Related Documents
Description
Test your knowledge on the actions of insulin, the characteristics of different receptors, and the roles of various hormones in the body. This quiz also covers the mechanics of neural reflexes and the sequence of events following ligand binding. Assess how well you understand these essential physiological concepts.
