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Questions and Answers
What is the function of Centriole in cell physiology?
direct spindle fibers for mitosis
Which of the following is a function of the Golgi Apparatus?
During Mitosis, chromosomes separate during Anaphase.
True
Passive transport does not require __________ for movement across the cell membrane.
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Match the types of transport mechanisms:
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What is the functional unit of the pulmonary system?
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How many generations is coughing effective?
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What is the origin of the external intercostals?
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Which condition results from hyperventilation throwing away CO2 and becoming acidic?
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What does the acronym ESR stand for and what does it determine in the body?
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RBCs have a lifespan of 120 days.
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Deprivation of oxygen triggers the hormone _________ to produce Red Blood Cells (RBCs).
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Match the following types of anemia with their descriptions:
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Which breathing pattern is associated with Metabolic Acidosis?
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What is the purpose of the second cough in a double cough?
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Which clotting factor is NOT present in the clotting factors chart?
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How much secretions are produced in a day? _____ mL/day
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In the clotting process, after thrombin, what protein is converted to fibrin?
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Match the breath sounds with their descriptions:
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Emphysema is associated with weight loss.
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Thrombocytopenia is a condition characterized by low platelet count. The opposite condition, characterized by high platelet count, is called __________.
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Match the following heart surfaces with their descriptions:
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The SA node is known as the primary pacemaker of the heart.
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What is the term for the rhythmic pumping action of the heart?
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What part of the heart experiences isovolumetric contraction?
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The P-wave in an ECG represents ventricular depolarization.
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What is the interval between the beginning of Atrial Depolarization to Ventricular Depolarization?
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What is the segment between the end of Atrial depolarization to the beginning of ventricular depolarization?
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What is the segment between end of ventricular depolarization to the end of ventricular repolarization?
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What cardiac enzyme will first rise in case of a myocardial infarction?
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Where is the most frequent location for a myocardial infarction to occur?
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True or False: A prolonged P-R interval indicates 1st-degree heart block.
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What type of angina is very predictable and precipitated by exertion?
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Match the following intestinal secretions with their functions:
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How is water primarily absorbed in the intestines?
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What is the primary function of biliary secretions by the liver and gall bladder?
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What are the two main components of Myofilament?
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Which band contains actin only?
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What is the main role of Troponin C?
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The Endocrine system is ductless and produces hormones in the blood or lymph system.
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The Pituitary Gland is connected to the hypothalamus by the ________.
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Match the following hormones with their functions:
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What is the function of Calcitonin?
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What is the hallmark of TB?
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Which symptom is associated with pulmonary embolism?
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SARS is caused by a coronavirus.
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Postural drainage is used to prevent accumulation of secretions and remove _____ that have already accumulated.
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Match the following hormonal effects in GI motility:
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Study Notes
Cell Physiology
- Cell structure:
- Centriole: directs spindle fibers for mitosis, important for cell reproduction
- Plasma membrane: semi-permeable, fluid, and charges -25mV
- Phospholipid bilayer: center is fat-soluble (hydrophobic) and more permeable, outer is water-soluble (hydrophilic) and less permeable
- Proteins: integral proteins serve as water channels, peripheral proteins
- Endocytosis:
- Bulk uptake of materials when in contact with the cell membrane
- Types: pinocytosis (cell drinking), phagocytosis (cell eating), receptor-mediated (coated pits)
- Cytosol: clear fluid where organelles are suspended, containing crystalloids and colloids
- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER):
- Bridge between nucleus and cytoplasm
- Two types: rough ER (protein synthesis) and smooth ER (lipid synthesis)
- Golgi apparatus: produces lysosomes and carbohydrates from SER
- Lysosomes: contain hydrolase, uptake bacteria and damaged cell parts
- Mitochondria: produce ATP, responsible for energy production
- Nucleus: control center, contains DNA or genes, chromatin, nucleoli
Cell Division
- Mitosis:
- Interphase: preparation for cell division, duplication of DNA
- Prophase: chromosomes pair, lose nuclear envelope
- Metaphase: aligning in the middle (equatorial plate)
- Anaphase: chromosomes separate, move towards opposite poles
- Telophase: 2 nuclei, cells cleaved into 2
- Meiosis:
- Interphase
- P1M1A1T1 -> P2M2A2T2
- Product: haploid
- Purpose: reproduction
Ions and Carbohydrates
- Ions:
- ICF (intracellular fluid): potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate
- ECF (extracellular fluid): sodium, chloride, bicarbonate
- Carbohydrates:
- Function: provide cellular nutrition
- Glucose: readily available, simplest form
- Glycogen: storage form of glucose in the cell
Transport Mechanisms
- Passive transport:
- Diffusion: does not require energy, from higher to lower concentration
- Three types: passive/simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis
- Active transport:
- Requires energy (ATP)
- Uphill transport, from lower to higher concentration
- Two types: primary and secondary transport
Nerve Physiology
- Nerve cells:
- Action potential: -70mV
- RMP (resting membrane potential): -90mV
- Propagation of action potential:
- Direction of propagation
- Na influx: depolarization
- K efflux: repolarization
- Sensory receptors:
- According to source of stimulus: exteroceptors, proprioceptors, enteroceptors/visceroreceptors
- According to modality: nociceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors
Muscle Physiology
- Muscle structure:
- Sarcomere: functional unit of the muscle, contains myofilaments (actin and myosin)
- Myofibrils: contain sarcomeres
- Muscle fiber: contains myofibrils
- Fasciculus: contains muscle fibers
- Muscle belly: contains fasciculi
- Events of muscle contraction:
- Action potential in nerve
- Release of calcium from synaptic vesicle
- Release of Ach at motor end plate
- Binding of Ach to ligand-gated sodium channel
- Na+ influx of the muscle cell
- Action potential in muscle
- Calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Calcium attachment to troponin C, unraveling troponin-tropomyosin complex, and revealing actin binding sites
- Other concepts:
- Summation: addition of muscle twitches to increase force generated
- Fast twitch and slow twitch muscles
Endocrine Physiology
- Endocrine system:
- Second great controlling system in the body
- Ductless glands produce hormones in the blood or lymph system
- Hypothalamus:
- Responsible for neuronal circuitry for emotional and motivational drive
- Functions: temperature regulation, osmolality of fluids, control of body weight, drive to eat and drink, emotional response
- Pituitary gland:
- Small gland, 1cm in diameter
- Lies in the sella turcica
- Two lobes: anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis) and posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
- Anterior pituitary gland hormones:
- Growth hormone: responsible for growth of soft tissues, decrease blood glucose
- Prolactin: production of milk
- FSH: stimulate gamete formation
- LH: stimulate sex hormone production
- MSH: increase skin pigmentation
- TSH: stimulate release of thyroid hormone
- ACTH: stimulate release of aldosterone and cortisol
- Posterior pituitary gland hormones:
- Oxytocin: milk ejection, uterine contractions### Endocrine System
- ADH/Vasopressin: responsible for water reabsorption
- Thyroid gland:
- Located inferior to the larynx
- Produces:
- Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) - essential for maturation, growth, and regulation of oxygen use and BMR
- Calcitonin - decreases blood Ca++ level and osteoclastic activity
- Parathyroid gland:
- Located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
- Produces parathormone - increases blood Ca++ level and osteoclastic activity
- Adrenal gland:
- Located superior to each kidney
- Adrenal cortex:
- Produces aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens
- Regulates electrolyte and water balance, metabolism, and stress response
- Adrenal medulla:
- Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine - responsible for the fight-or-flight response
- Pineal gland:
- Located attached to the third ventricle of the brain
- Produces melatonin - regulates sleep-wake cycles
- Thymus gland:
- Located behind the sternum between the lungs
- Produces thymosin - essential for T-cell maturation
- Pancreas:
- Both exocrine and endocrine functions
- Produces:
- Insulin - decreases blood glucose levels
- Glucagon - increases blood glucose levels
- Somatostatin - regulates insulin and glucagon production
Blood Physiology
- Blood functions:
- Oxygen transport
- Nutrient delivery
- Waste removal
- Immunity
- Hormone transport
- Regulation of pH and temperature
- Buffer system:
- pH range: 7.34-7.45
- CO2 level: 35-45 mmHg
- HCO3 level: 22-26 meq/L
- Blood composition:
- Plasma: 55% of total blood volume
- Formed elements (RBC, WBC, platelets): 45% of total blood volume
- RBC:
- Life span: 120 days
- Formation: erythropoiesis
- Destruction: hemolysis
- Functions: oxygen transport
- WBC:
- Life span: 4-5 hours (circulation), 4-6 days (tissue)
- Types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes
- Functions: immunity
- Platelets:
- Life span: 8-10 days
- Functions: clotting
Cardiovascular Physiology
- Heart:
- Location: mediastinum
- Orientation: 2/3 of the heart lies to the left of the body's midline
- Surfaces: anterior, inferior, and posterior
- Chambers: right and left atria, right and left ventricles
- Heart muscles:
- Papillary muscle: pulls on chordae tendineae to prevent valve cusp eversion
- Pectinate muscle: rough anterior surface of the atrium
- Trabeculae carnea: cardiac ridges in the ventricles
- Valves:
- AV valves: tricuspid (right) and mitral (left)
- SL valves: prevents backflow of blood from the arteries### Heart Structure
- Aortic valve: seen on the right or left side of the heart
- Pulmonary artery: comes from the right ventricle of the heart
Blood Pathway
- Ascending pathway:
- Ascending aorta > brachiocephalic > subclavian and common carotid arteries
- Subclavian artery > vertebral and axillary arteries
- Vertebral artery > basilar artery > posterior cerebral artery
- Axillary artery > brachial artery > radial and ulnar arteries
- No left brachiocephalic artery; left subclavian and common carotid arteries arise directly from the aorta
- Descending pathway:
- Descending aorta > thoracic aorta > abdominal aorta > common iliac artery > external and internal common iliac arteries
- Internal iliac artery > lumbosacral plexus
- External iliac artery > femoral artery > popliteal artery > anterior tibial artery
Heart Sounds
- S1 (lub): closure of AV valves; longer, louder, and lower in pitch
- S2 (dub): closure of SL valves; shorter
- S3 (rapid filling of ventricles): Ventricular gallop; associated with CHF (3 letters: C-H-F)
- S4 (atrial systole): Atrial gallop; associated with MI or hypertension
Conducting System
- SA node (sinus node): primary pacemaker of the heart; located below the superior vena cava in the right atrium
- AV node (junctional node): located between the atrium and ventricle
- AV bundle of His: located on the interventricular septum
- Purkinje fibers: largest pacemaker of the heart; surrounds the whole ventricle
Coronary Arteries
- Supply blood to the heart
- Right coronary artery: supplies the right atrium and ventricle, left ventricle (minor portion), interventricular septum, SA node, AV node, and Bundle of His
- Left coronary artery: supplies the left atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle (minor portion), interventricular septum, SA node, and Bundle of His
- LADCA (Left Anterior Descending Coronary Artery): supplies the anterior, superior, and lateral surface of the heart
- Circumflex: supplies the posterior surface of the heart
Cardiac Action Potential
- Phase 0: depolarization; inward current of Na+ and Ca2+ ions
- Phase 1: initial/ partial repolarization; decrease in Na+ influx
- Phase 2: plateau; decrease in Ca2+ influx
- Phase 3: rapid repolarization; outward current of K+ ions
- Phase 4: resting membrane potential; return to -88mV
Cardiac Cycle
- Rhythmic pumping action of the heart
- Systole: ventricular contraction
- Diastole: ventricular relaxation
- Cardiac cycle starts at diastole
- Period of rapid filling: 1st third of diastole; 75% of blood from atrium to ventricles passively
- Isovolumetric contraction: ventricular contraction; builds pressure
- Isovolumetric relaxation: SL valves close to prevent backflow; AV valves open to restart the cycle
Hemodynamics
- Systolic: highest arterial pressure (120mmHg)
- Diastolic: lowest arterial pressure (80mmHg)
- Pulse pressure: difference between systolic and diastolic BP (40mmHg)
- End-diastolic volume: amount of blood left in the ventricles after diastole (120mL)
- Preload: initial stretching of the heart
- End-systolic volume: amount of blood left after systole (50mL)
- Mean arterial pressure: arterial pressure with respect to time (93mmHg)
- Stroke volume: amount of blood pumped by the ventricles per contraction (70mL)
- Cardiac output: amount of blood pumped by the ventricles per minute (average 4-6L)
ECG
- P-wave: atrial depolarization
- QRS complex: ventricular depolarization
- T-wave: ventricular repolarization
- P-R interval: interval between the beginning of the P-wave and the beginning of the QRS complex
- Q-T interval: interval between the beginning of the QRS complex and the end of the T-wave
- P-R segment: segment between the end of the P-wave and the beginning of the QRS complex
- S-T segment: segment between the end of the QRS complex and the end of the T-wave
Heart Conditions
- S/Sx: chest pain or discomfort, palpitations, dyspnea, fainting, cyanosis, and fatigue
- Angina: chest pain or discomfort
- Types of Angina:
- Chronic stable angina: predictable, precipitated by exertion
- Unstable/ crescendo/ preinfarction/ progressive angina: no response to rest and nitrates
- Nocturnal angina: exertion (dreams)
- Prinzmetal angina (angina inversa/ variant angina): MC in women, post-menopausal; vasospasm of coronary artery
Laboratory Findings
- Cardiac enzymes:
- CK-MB: creatine kinase myocardial bond; peak 12-24 hours
- SGOT: serum glutamic oxalo-acetic transminase; peak 24-48 hours
- CPK: creatinine phosphokinase; peak 24 hours
- LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; peak 3-6 days
- Which cardiac enzyme will first rise?: CKMB
- True myocardial infarction: S-T segment elevation and all cardiac enzymes elevated
Diagnostic Tools
- Chest X-ray: assess the size and shape of the heart
- Myocardial perfusion imaging: Thalium/ nuclear stress test
- Echocardiogram: use of US to see movement of valves and walls of the heart
- Cardiac catheterization: inserted in the femoral artery in the inguinal area
- Central line/ Swan-ganz catheter: determines central venous Po, pulmonary a. Po, and pulmonary capillary wedge Po
Medical and Surgical Intervention
- PTCA: percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty
- IV stents: prevent recollapse
- CABG: coronary artery bypass graft
- Heart transplant: given immunosuppressive drugs to prevent rejection of drugs
Cardiac Conditions
- Pericarditis: inflammation of pericardium; mimics chest pain
- Cardiac tamponade: excess pericardial fluid; chronic form of pericarditis
- CHF (congestive heart failure/ cardiac decompensation): inability of the ventricles to contract effectively
- Types of CHF:
- Right-sided heart failure: backward heart failure
- Left-sided heart failure: forward heart failure
- Myocardial infarction: aka coronary occlusion; cell death of myocardium
- Heart valve conditions:
- Stenosis: inability of the valve to fully open
- Insufficiency: inability of the valve to fully close
- Prolapse: cusps of valves bulge due to decrease in strength of cusp
Congenital Anomalies
- Atrial septal defect (ASD): defect in interatrial septum
- Ventricular septal defect (VSD): defect in interventricular septum
- PDA (patent ductus arteriosus): remnant of ductus arteriosus
- Coarctation of aorta: constriction of proximal and distal aorta
- Tetralogy of Fallot (true blue baby):
- Pulmonary artery stenosis
- (Overriding) aorta
- (R) ventricular hypertrophy/ aka Cor Pulmonale
- Interventricular septal defect (VSD)
Cardiac Rehabilitation
- IER: combines training and maintenance called community exercise program
- Acute/ inpatient phase: prevent deconditioning, family education, and instruction only
- Convalescent/ outpatient phase: promote strong scar formation
- Training phase: most difficult/ vigorous phase with use of treadmill
- Maintenance phase: most important phase; lifelong routine
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Description
This quiz covers various topics in physiology, including cellular, nervous, muscular, and organ system functions. Test your knowledge of human physiology!
