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Questions and Answers
What is the function of Centriole in cell physiology?
What is the function of Centriole in cell physiology?
direct spindle fibers for mitosis
Which of the following is a function of the Golgi Apparatus?
Which of the following is a function of the Golgi Apparatus?
During Mitosis, chromosomes separate during Anaphase.
During Mitosis, chromosomes separate during Anaphase.
True
Passive transport does not require __________ for movement across the cell membrane.
Passive transport does not require __________ for movement across the cell membrane.
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Match the types of transport mechanisms:
Match the types of transport mechanisms:
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What is the functional unit of the pulmonary system?
What is the functional unit of the pulmonary system?
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How many generations is coughing effective?
How many generations is coughing effective?
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What is the origin of the external intercostals?
What is the origin of the external intercostals?
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Which condition results from hyperventilation throwing away CO2 and becoming acidic?
Which condition results from hyperventilation throwing away CO2 and becoming acidic?
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What does the acronym ESR stand for and what does it determine in the body?
What does the acronym ESR stand for and what does it determine in the body?
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RBCs have a lifespan of 120 days.
RBCs have a lifespan of 120 days.
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Deprivation of oxygen triggers the hormone _________ to produce Red Blood Cells (RBCs).
Deprivation of oxygen triggers the hormone _________ to produce Red Blood Cells (RBCs).
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Match the following types of anemia with their descriptions:
Match the following types of anemia with their descriptions:
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Which breathing pattern is associated with Metabolic Acidosis?
Which breathing pattern is associated with Metabolic Acidosis?
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What is the purpose of the second cough in a double cough?
What is the purpose of the second cough in a double cough?
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Which clotting factor is NOT present in the clotting factors chart?
Which clotting factor is NOT present in the clotting factors chart?
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How much secretions are produced in a day? _____ mL/day
How much secretions are produced in a day? _____ mL/day
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In the clotting process, after thrombin, what protein is converted to fibrin?
In the clotting process, after thrombin, what protein is converted to fibrin?
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Match the breath sounds with their descriptions:
Match the breath sounds with their descriptions:
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Emphysema is associated with weight loss.
Emphysema is associated with weight loss.
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Thrombocytopenia is a condition characterized by low platelet count. The opposite condition, characterized by high platelet count, is called __________.
Thrombocytopenia is a condition characterized by low platelet count. The opposite condition, characterized by high platelet count, is called __________.
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Match the following heart surfaces with their descriptions:
Match the following heart surfaces with their descriptions:
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The SA node is known as the primary pacemaker of the heart.
The SA node is known as the primary pacemaker of the heart.
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What is the term for the rhythmic pumping action of the heart?
What is the term for the rhythmic pumping action of the heart?
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What part of the heart experiences isovolumetric contraction?
What part of the heart experiences isovolumetric contraction?
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The P-wave in an ECG represents ventricular depolarization.
The P-wave in an ECG represents ventricular depolarization.
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What is the interval between the beginning of Atrial Depolarization to Ventricular Depolarization?
What is the interval between the beginning of Atrial Depolarization to Ventricular Depolarization?
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What is the segment between the end of Atrial depolarization to the beginning of ventricular depolarization?
What is the segment between the end of Atrial depolarization to the beginning of ventricular depolarization?
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What is the segment between end of ventricular depolarization to the end of ventricular repolarization?
What is the segment between end of ventricular depolarization to the end of ventricular repolarization?
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What cardiac enzyme will first rise in case of a myocardial infarction?
What cardiac enzyme will first rise in case of a myocardial infarction?
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Where is the most frequent location for a myocardial infarction to occur?
Where is the most frequent location for a myocardial infarction to occur?
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True or False: A prolonged P-R interval indicates 1st-degree heart block.
True or False: A prolonged P-R interval indicates 1st-degree heart block.
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What type of angina is very predictable and precipitated by exertion?
What type of angina is very predictable and precipitated by exertion?
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Match the following intestinal secretions with their functions:
Match the following intestinal secretions with their functions:
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How is water primarily absorbed in the intestines?
How is water primarily absorbed in the intestines?
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What is the primary function of biliary secretions by the liver and gall bladder?
What is the primary function of biliary secretions by the liver and gall bladder?
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What are the two main components of Myofilament?
What are the two main components of Myofilament?
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Which band contains actin only?
Which band contains actin only?
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What is the main role of Troponin C?
What is the main role of Troponin C?
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The Endocrine system is ductless and produces hormones in the blood or lymph system.
The Endocrine system is ductless and produces hormones in the blood or lymph system.
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The Pituitary Gland is connected to the hypothalamus by the ________.
The Pituitary Gland is connected to the hypothalamus by the ________.
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Match the following hormones with their functions:
Match the following hormones with their functions:
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What is the function of Calcitonin?
What is the function of Calcitonin?
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What is the hallmark of TB?
What is the hallmark of TB?
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Which symptom is associated with pulmonary embolism?
Which symptom is associated with pulmonary embolism?
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SARS is caused by a coronavirus.
SARS is caused by a coronavirus.
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Postural drainage is used to prevent accumulation of secretions and remove _____ that have already accumulated.
Postural drainage is used to prevent accumulation of secretions and remove _____ that have already accumulated.
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Match the following hormonal effects in GI motility:
Match the following hormonal effects in GI motility:
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Study Notes
Cell Physiology
- Cell structure:
- Centriole: directs spindle fibers for mitosis, important for cell reproduction
- Plasma membrane: semi-permeable, fluid, and charges -25mV
- Phospholipid bilayer: center is fat-soluble (hydrophobic) and more permeable, outer is water-soluble (hydrophilic) and less permeable
- Proteins: integral proteins serve as water channels, peripheral proteins
- Endocytosis:
- Bulk uptake of materials when in contact with the cell membrane
- Types: pinocytosis (cell drinking), phagocytosis (cell eating), receptor-mediated (coated pits)
- Cytosol: clear fluid where organelles are suspended, containing crystalloids and colloids
- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER):
- Bridge between nucleus and cytoplasm
- Two types: rough ER (protein synthesis) and smooth ER (lipid synthesis)
- Golgi apparatus: produces lysosomes and carbohydrates from SER
- Lysosomes: contain hydrolase, uptake bacteria and damaged cell parts
- Mitochondria: produce ATP, responsible for energy production
- Nucleus: control center, contains DNA or genes, chromatin, nucleoli
Cell Division
- Mitosis:
- Interphase: preparation for cell division, duplication of DNA
- Prophase: chromosomes pair, lose nuclear envelope
- Metaphase: aligning in the middle (equatorial plate)
- Anaphase: chromosomes separate, move towards opposite poles
- Telophase: 2 nuclei, cells cleaved into 2
- Meiosis:
- Interphase
- P1M1A1T1 -> P2M2A2T2
- Product: haploid
- Purpose: reproduction
Ions and Carbohydrates
- Ions:
- ICF (intracellular fluid): potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate
- ECF (extracellular fluid): sodium, chloride, bicarbonate
- Carbohydrates:
- Function: provide cellular nutrition
- Glucose: readily available, simplest form
- Glycogen: storage form of glucose in the cell
Transport Mechanisms
- Passive transport:
- Diffusion: does not require energy, from higher to lower concentration
- Three types: passive/simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis
- Active transport:
- Requires energy (ATP)
- Uphill transport, from lower to higher concentration
- Two types: primary and secondary transport
Nerve Physiology
- Nerve cells:
- Action potential: -70mV
- RMP (resting membrane potential): -90mV
- Propagation of action potential:
- Direction of propagation
- Na influx: depolarization
- K efflux: repolarization
- Sensory receptors:
- According to source of stimulus: exteroceptors, proprioceptors, enteroceptors/visceroreceptors
- According to modality: nociceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors
Muscle Physiology
- Muscle structure:
- Sarcomere: functional unit of the muscle, contains myofilaments (actin and myosin)
- Myofibrils: contain sarcomeres
- Muscle fiber: contains myofibrils
- Fasciculus: contains muscle fibers
- Muscle belly: contains fasciculi
- Events of muscle contraction:
- Action potential in nerve
- Release of calcium from synaptic vesicle
- Release of Ach at motor end plate
- Binding of Ach to ligand-gated sodium channel
- Na+ influx of the muscle cell
- Action potential in muscle
- Calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Calcium attachment to troponin C, unraveling troponin-tropomyosin complex, and revealing actin binding sites
- Other concepts:
- Summation: addition of muscle twitches to increase force generated
- Fast twitch and slow twitch muscles
Endocrine Physiology
- Endocrine system:
- Second great controlling system in the body
- Ductless glands produce hormones in the blood or lymph system
- Hypothalamus:
- Responsible for neuronal circuitry for emotional and motivational drive
- Functions: temperature regulation, osmolality of fluids, control of body weight, drive to eat and drink, emotional response
- Pituitary gland:
- Small gland, 1cm in diameter
- Lies in the sella turcica
- Two lobes: anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis) and posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)
- Anterior pituitary gland hormones:
- Growth hormone: responsible for growth of soft tissues, decrease blood glucose
- Prolactin: production of milk
- FSH: stimulate gamete formation
- LH: stimulate sex hormone production
- MSH: increase skin pigmentation
- TSH: stimulate release of thyroid hormone
- ACTH: stimulate release of aldosterone and cortisol
- Posterior pituitary gland hormones:
- Oxytocin: milk ejection, uterine contractions### Endocrine System
- ADH/Vasopressin: responsible for water reabsorption
- Thyroid gland:
- Located inferior to the larynx
- Produces:
- Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) - essential for maturation, growth, and regulation of oxygen use and BMR
- Calcitonin - decreases blood Ca++ level and osteoclastic activity
- Parathyroid gland:
- Located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
- Produces parathormone - increases blood Ca++ level and osteoclastic activity
- Adrenal gland:
- Located superior to each kidney
- Adrenal cortex:
- Produces aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens
- Regulates electrolyte and water balance, metabolism, and stress response
- Adrenal medulla:
- Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine - responsible for the fight-or-flight response
- Pineal gland:
- Located attached to the third ventricle of the brain
- Produces melatonin - regulates sleep-wake cycles
- Thymus gland:
- Located behind the sternum between the lungs
- Produces thymosin - essential for T-cell maturation
- Pancreas:
- Both exocrine and endocrine functions
- Produces:
- Insulin - decreases blood glucose levels
- Glucagon - increases blood glucose levels
- Somatostatin - regulates insulin and glucagon production
Blood Physiology
- Blood functions:
- Oxygen transport
- Nutrient delivery
- Waste removal
- Immunity
- Hormone transport
- Regulation of pH and temperature
- Buffer system:
- pH range: 7.34-7.45
- CO2 level: 35-45 mmHg
- HCO3 level: 22-26 meq/L
- Blood composition:
- Plasma: 55% of total blood volume
- Formed elements (RBC, WBC, platelets): 45% of total blood volume
- RBC:
- Life span: 120 days
- Formation: erythropoiesis
- Destruction: hemolysis
- Functions: oxygen transport
- WBC:
- Life span: 4-5 hours (circulation), 4-6 days (tissue)
- Types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes
- Functions: immunity
- Platelets:
- Life span: 8-10 days
- Functions: clotting
Cardiovascular Physiology
- Heart:
- Location: mediastinum
- Orientation: 2/3 of the heart lies to the left of the body's midline
- Surfaces: anterior, inferior, and posterior
- Chambers: right and left atria, right and left ventricles
- Heart muscles:
- Papillary muscle: pulls on chordae tendineae to prevent valve cusp eversion
- Pectinate muscle: rough anterior surface of the atrium
- Trabeculae carnea: cardiac ridges in the ventricles
- Valves:
- AV valves: tricuspid (right) and mitral (left)
- SL valves: prevents backflow of blood from the arteries### Heart Structure
- Aortic valve: seen on the right or left side of the heart
- Pulmonary artery: comes from the right ventricle of the heart
Blood Pathway
- Ascending pathway:
- Ascending aorta > brachiocephalic > subclavian and common carotid arteries
- Subclavian artery > vertebral and axillary arteries
- Vertebral artery > basilar artery > posterior cerebral artery
- Axillary artery > brachial artery > radial and ulnar arteries
- No left brachiocephalic artery; left subclavian and common carotid arteries arise directly from the aorta
- Descending pathway:
- Descending aorta > thoracic aorta > abdominal aorta > common iliac artery > external and internal common iliac arteries
- Internal iliac artery > lumbosacral plexus
- External iliac artery > femoral artery > popliteal artery > anterior tibial artery
Heart Sounds
- S1 (lub): closure of AV valves; longer, louder, and lower in pitch
- S2 (dub): closure of SL valves; shorter
- S3 (rapid filling of ventricles): Ventricular gallop; associated with CHF (3 letters: C-H-F)
- S4 (atrial systole): Atrial gallop; associated with MI or hypertension
Conducting System
- SA node (sinus node): primary pacemaker of the heart; located below the superior vena cava in the right atrium
- AV node (junctional node): located between the atrium and ventricle
- AV bundle of His: located on the interventricular septum
- Purkinje fibers: largest pacemaker of the heart; surrounds the whole ventricle
Coronary Arteries
- Supply blood to the heart
- Right coronary artery: supplies the right atrium and ventricle, left ventricle (minor portion), interventricular septum, SA node, AV node, and Bundle of His
- Left coronary artery: supplies the left atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle (minor portion), interventricular septum, SA node, and Bundle of His
- LADCA (Left Anterior Descending Coronary Artery): supplies the anterior, superior, and lateral surface of the heart
- Circumflex: supplies the posterior surface of the heart
Cardiac Action Potential
- Phase 0: depolarization; inward current of Na+ and Ca2+ ions
- Phase 1: initial/ partial repolarization; decrease in Na+ influx
- Phase 2: plateau; decrease in Ca2+ influx
- Phase 3: rapid repolarization; outward current of K+ ions
- Phase 4: resting membrane potential; return to -88mV
Cardiac Cycle
- Rhythmic pumping action of the heart
- Systole: ventricular contraction
- Diastole: ventricular relaxation
- Cardiac cycle starts at diastole
- Period of rapid filling: 1st third of diastole; 75% of blood from atrium to ventricles passively
- Isovolumetric contraction: ventricular contraction; builds pressure
- Isovolumetric relaxation: SL valves close to prevent backflow; AV valves open to restart the cycle
Hemodynamics
- Systolic: highest arterial pressure (120mmHg)
- Diastolic: lowest arterial pressure (80mmHg)
- Pulse pressure: difference between systolic and diastolic BP (40mmHg)
- End-diastolic volume: amount of blood left in the ventricles after diastole (120mL)
- Preload: initial stretching of the heart
- End-systolic volume: amount of blood left after systole (50mL)
- Mean arterial pressure: arterial pressure with respect to time (93mmHg)
- Stroke volume: amount of blood pumped by the ventricles per contraction (70mL)
- Cardiac output: amount of blood pumped by the ventricles per minute (average 4-6L)
ECG
- P-wave: atrial depolarization
- QRS complex: ventricular depolarization
- T-wave: ventricular repolarization
- P-R interval: interval between the beginning of the P-wave and the beginning of the QRS complex
- Q-T interval: interval between the beginning of the QRS complex and the end of the T-wave
- P-R segment: segment between the end of the P-wave and the beginning of the QRS complex
- S-T segment: segment between the end of the QRS complex and the end of the T-wave
Heart Conditions
- S/Sx: chest pain or discomfort, palpitations, dyspnea, fainting, cyanosis, and fatigue
- Angina: chest pain or discomfort
- Types of Angina:
- Chronic stable angina: predictable, precipitated by exertion
- Unstable/ crescendo/ preinfarction/ progressive angina: no response to rest and nitrates
- Nocturnal angina: exertion (dreams)
- Prinzmetal angina (angina inversa/ variant angina): MC in women, post-menopausal; vasospasm of coronary artery
Laboratory Findings
- Cardiac enzymes:
- CK-MB: creatine kinase myocardial bond; peak 12-24 hours
- SGOT: serum glutamic oxalo-acetic transminase; peak 24-48 hours
- CPK: creatinine phosphokinase; peak 24 hours
- LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; peak 3-6 days
- Which cardiac enzyme will first rise?: CKMB
- True myocardial infarction: S-T segment elevation and all cardiac enzymes elevated
Diagnostic Tools
- Chest X-ray: assess the size and shape of the heart
- Myocardial perfusion imaging: Thalium/ nuclear stress test
- Echocardiogram: use of US to see movement of valves and walls of the heart
- Cardiac catheterization: inserted in the femoral artery in the inguinal area
- Central line/ Swan-ganz catheter: determines central venous Po, pulmonary a. Po, and pulmonary capillary wedge Po
Medical and Surgical Intervention
- PTCA: percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty
- IV stents: prevent recollapse
- CABG: coronary artery bypass graft
- Heart transplant: given immunosuppressive drugs to prevent rejection of drugs
Cardiac Conditions
- Pericarditis: inflammation of pericardium; mimics chest pain
- Cardiac tamponade: excess pericardial fluid; chronic form of pericarditis
- CHF (congestive heart failure/ cardiac decompensation): inability of the ventricles to contract effectively
- Types of CHF:
- Right-sided heart failure: backward heart failure
- Left-sided heart failure: forward heart failure
- Myocardial infarction: aka coronary occlusion; cell death of myocardium
- Heart valve conditions:
- Stenosis: inability of the valve to fully open
- Insufficiency: inability of the valve to fully close
- Prolapse: cusps of valves bulge due to decrease in strength of cusp
Congenital Anomalies
- Atrial septal defect (ASD): defect in interatrial septum
- Ventricular septal defect (VSD): defect in interventricular septum
- PDA (patent ductus arteriosus): remnant of ductus arteriosus
- Coarctation of aorta: constriction of proximal and distal aorta
- Tetralogy of Fallot (true blue baby):
- Pulmonary artery stenosis
- (Overriding) aorta
- (R) ventricular hypertrophy/ aka Cor Pulmonale
- Interventricular septal defect (VSD)
Cardiac Rehabilitation
- IER: combines training and maintenance called community exercise program
- Acute/ inpatient phase: prevent deconditioning, family education, and instruction only
- Convalescent/ outpatient phase: promote strong scar formation
- Training phase: most difficult/ vigorous phase with use of treadmill
- Maintenance phase: most important phase; lifelong routine
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This quiz covers various topics in physiology, including cellular, nervous, muscular, and organ system functions. Test your knowledge of human physiology!
