Physiology Chapter 1 and 5 Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the main purpose of negative feedback in the body?

  • To reverse a change and maintain homeostasis (correct)
  • To enhance a change and push the system away from its set point
  • To create a permanent state of equilibrium
  • To initiate a rapid response to external stimuli

Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium that does not change.

False (B)

List the levels of organization in the human body from atoms to organism.

Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism

The maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment is called __________.

<p>homeostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of simple diffusion?

<p>Utilizes carrier proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of transport with its description:

<p>Simple Diffusion = Passive movement down a concentration gradient Facilitated Diffusion = Passive movement using carrier proteins Active Transport = Movement against a concentration gradient using energy Vesicular Transport = Involves vesicles for transporting larger molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

An example of active transport is the movement of glucose through GLUT transporters.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when homeostasis fails for prolonged periods?

<p>Disease and sickness</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily involved in regulating circadian rhythms?

<p>Melatonin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The hypothalamus does not produce neurohormones that regulate the pituitary gland.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main target of Prolactin (PRL)?

<p>Mammary glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

The hormone that stimulates the adrenal cortex is called __________.

<p>Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following anterior pituitary hormones with their corresponding control hormones:

<p>Prolactin (PRL) = Prolactin-releasing factors and dopamine Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) = Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) = Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Growth Hormone (GH) = Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin</p> Signup and view all the answers

Long-loop negative feedback primarily involves which hormones?

<p>Hormones from target endocrine glands (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Functional antagonism refers to different hormones working together to produce a greater effect.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does permissiveness mean in the context of hormone interaction?

<p>One hormone enables another's full effect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference in the response time between lipophilic and lipophobic ligands binding to their respective receptors?

<p>Lipophobic ligands lead to rapid responses. (B), Lipophobic ligands cause slower responses related to changes in gene activity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Neurotransmitters are chemical signals used in endocrine reflexes.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name one type of receptor that binds to epinephrine and its effect.

<p>Alpha receptors, which cause vasoconstriction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The speed of neural reflexes is considered to be very ______.

<p>fast</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of hormone to its characteristic:

<p>Peptide hormones = Stored in secretory vesicles Steroid hormones = Synthesized from cholesterol Amine hormones = Derivatives of amino acids Endocrine reflexes = Involve hormone secretion into the bloodstream</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the process by which receptors convert physical stimuli into electrical signals?

<p>Transduction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the coding method for stimulus intensity in neural reflexes?

<p>Frequency of action potentials (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Peptide hormones are lipophilic and can easily pass through the cell membrane.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Tonic receptors adapt quickly to a continuous stimulus.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

List one criterion that makes a chemical signal a hormone.

<p>It is secreted into the bloodstream.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define a motor unit.

<p>A motor unit is a motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle fibers it innervates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The __________ reflex is an example of a monosynaptic stretch reflex.

<p>patellar tendon</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following neurotransmitters to their respective divisions:

<p>Acetylcholine = Parasympathetic division Epinephrine = Sympathetic division Norepinephrine = Sympathetic division</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors influences stroke volume?

<p>Skeletal muscle pump (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Blood pressure decreases as blood flows through the systemic circulation.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the relationship between heart rate and stroke volume.

<p>Heart rate multiplied by stroke volume equals cardiac output.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of hormonal interaction occurs when two hormones produce a greater effect together than individually?

<p>Synergism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hyposecretion is characterized by excess hormone production.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name the three most common types of endocrine pathologies.

<p>Hypersecretion, Hyposecretion, Abnormal Target Response</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a three-gland pathway, high hormone levels at the final gland indicate a problem may be in the _______ or _______.

<p>anterior pituitary, hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormones with their effects:

<p>Insulin = Decreases blood glucose Glucagon = Increases blood glucose Epinephrine = Increases heart rate Thyroid hormone = Regulates metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when target cells fail to respond appropriately to hormones?

<p>Abnormal Target Response (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

An increase in thyroid hormone paired with a decrease in TSH indicates a problem with the thyroid gland.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The mechanism of long-term potentiation in synaptic communication is mediated by _______ and _______ receptors.

<p>AMPA, NMDA</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor that increases blood pressure according to the relationship between cardiac output and peripheral resistance?

<p>Increase in cardiac output (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Myogenic autoregulation is responsible for decreasing blood flow when blood pressure increases.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of signaling that the body uses to direct blood flow?

<p>Local and long-distance signaling</p> Signup and view all the answers

The _____ reflex helps regulate blood pressure through changes in heart rate and vessel diameter.

<p>baroreceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following cellular elements of blood with their primary functions:

<p>Red blood cells = Transport oxygen White blood cells = Immune response Platelets = Blood clotting Plasma = Nutrient transport and waste removal</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition describes the relationship between lung volume and pressure during inhalation?

<p>Volume increases, pressure decreases (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Compliance and elastance are two measures that describe the same physiological property of the lungs.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do surfactants play in respiratory physiology?

<p>They reduce surface tension in the alveoli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Physiology Definition

The study of how living organisms and their parts function normally.

Homeostasis

Maintaining a stable internal environment despite outside changes.

Negative Feedback

A process in the body that reverses a change to return to a set point.

Osmotic Equilibrium

The balance of water and dissolved substances between cells and their surroundings.

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Simple Diffusion

Molecules moving from a high concentration to a low concentration.

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Facilitated Diffusion

Protein helps molecules across the membrane; no energy needed.

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Active Transport

Protein helps to move molecules against their concentration gradient, needs energy.

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Vesicular Transport

Transporting large materials in vesicles (packages).

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Thyroid Hormones

Hormones produced by the thyroid gland, like thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), that regulate metabolism and development.

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Melatonin

A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms.

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Hypothalamus Role in Endocrine System

The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that controls the pituitary gland, releasing hormones that regulate other endocrine glands.

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Neuroendocrine Reflexes

Electrical signals in the nervous system trigger the release of hormones, like oxytocin during childbirth.

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones

The anterior pituitary gland produces six main hormones: prolactin, TSH, ACTH, GH, FSH and LH.

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Long-Loop Negative Feedback

Hormones produced by target endocrine glands (e.g., cortisol) inhibit the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus.

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Permissiveness (Hormones)

One hormone enables another hormone's full effect, like thyroid hormone enhancing epinephrine's effect on fat breakdown.

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Synergism (Hormones)

Two hormones working together to produce a greater effect than either could alone.

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Lipophilic Ligand Binding

When a fat-soluble ligand binds to an intracellular receptor, it triggers a chain reaction that ultimately alters gene expression, leading to slower changes in the cell.

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Lipophobic Ligand Binding

When a water-soluble ligand binds to a cell surface receptor, it triggers a rapid cascade of events that ultimately leads to a quick change in the cell's activity.

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Types of Cell Surface Receptors

There are four major types of cell surface receptors: (1) ion channel-linked receptors, (2) G protein-coupled receptors, (3) enzyme-linked receptors, and (4) intracellular receptor-mediated signaling. Each type uses a distinct mechanism to transduce signals into the cell.

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Specificity of Receptors

Receptors can bind to specific ligands, much like a lock can only fit a specific key. This specificity ensures that only the appropriate signal triggers a response.

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Competition of Ligands

If two ligands compete for the same receptor, the one with higher affinity (stronger attraction) will bind more readily and produce a greater effect. This can lead to a ‘tug-of-war’ effect.

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Affinity of Ligands

Affinity describes the strength of the attraction between a ligand and its receptor. Higher affinity means a stronger bond and more likely binding.

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Saturation of Receptors

When all available receptors are bound to ligands, the system is saturated. Further increasing the ligand concentration won't cause a further increase in the response.

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Reflex Control Pathway

A reflex pathway is a series of events that occur in response to a stimulus. These pathways involve a receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, and effector.

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Synergism

Two hormones work together to produce a greater effect than the sum of their individual effects.

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Functional Antagonism

Two hormones have opposing effects on the same target.

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Hypersecretion

Excess hormone production.

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Hyposecretion

Deficient hormone production.

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Abnormal Target Response

Target cells fail to respond appropriately to a hormone.

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Negative Feedback in Endocrine Pathways

A mechanism that regulates hormone levels by sensing hormone output and adjusting production accordingly.

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Three-Gland Pathway Problem

Identifying the location of a problem in a three-gland pathway by analyzing hormone levels at each stage.

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Location of a Problem in a Three-Gland Pathway

A problem with the final gland causes high hormone levels at the final gland but low levels at the earlier stages.

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Transduction

The conversion of a physical stimulus, like light or pressure, into an electrical signal that the nervous system can understand.

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Receptor Potential

A local, graded change in membrane potential produced by a sensory receptor in response to a stimulus.

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Adequate Stimulus

The specific type of stimulus that a sensory receptor is most sensitive to.

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Modality

The type of stimulus that is being detected, such as light, sound, or pressure.

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Location of Stimulus

The area of the body where a stimulus is applied.

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Intensity of Stimulus

The strength of the stimulus.

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Duration of Stimulus

The length of time that a stimulus is applied.

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Tonic Receptor

A sensory receptor that responds continuously to a stimulus.

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Cardiac Output & Blood Pressure

Cardiac output (heart's pumping force) increases blood pressure, while peripheral resistance (narrowing of blood vessels) also increases blood pressure. Both work together to regulate blood flow and pressure.

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Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)

The average pressure in the arteries over one cardiac cycle, calculated as [(diastolic pressure) + (1/3)* (systolic pressure - diastolic pressure)]

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Myogenic Autoregulation

Smooth muscle in blood vessels senses changes in blood pressure and adjusts vessel diameter to maintain consistent blood flow to tissues.

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Local vs. Long-Distance Signaling

Local signaling uses paracrines and autocrines that act on nearby cells, while long-distance signaling uses hormones in the blood to reach distant cells.

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Baroreceptor Reflex Steps

A feedback loop that regulates blood pressure: 1. Stimulus: change in blood pressure 2. Sensor: baroreceptors detect pressure 3. Input Pathway: nerves send signals to brain 4. Integrating Center: brainstem processes and coordinates 5. Output Pathway: nerves send signals to heart and blood vessels 6. Target: heart & blood vessels 7. Cellular Response: heart rate and vessel diameter change 8. Tissue Response: blood flow adapts 9. Systemic Response: blood pressure returns to normal

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Forces Influencing Capillary Filtration

Capillary filtration is driven by blood pressure and interstitial fluid pressure pushing fluid out, while absorption is driven by osmotic pressure due to plasma proteins pulling fluid in. These opposing forces determine the net movement of fluid between capillaries and interstitial fluid.

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Plasma Composition

Plasma is the liquid component of blood, composed of water, proteins, electrolytes, and dissolved substances.

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Hematopoiesis: Blood Cell Production

Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell production, occurring in bone marrow. It includes erythropoiesis (red blood cell formation), leukopoiesis (white blood cell formation), and thrombopoiesis (platelet formation). Key cytokines like erythropoietin (EPO) regulate these processes.

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Study Notes

Chapter 1

  • Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its parts.
  • Levels of organization: Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism
  • Homeostasis is maintaining a stable internal environment despite external changes. Disease occurs when homeostasis is disrupted for prolonged periods.
  • Negative feedback: A process that reverses a change to return to a set point. Example: Body temperature regulation (sweating when it's hot).
  • Positive feedback: A process that amplifies or increases a change, moving the system further from the set point. Example: Childbirth (oxytocin intensifies contractions).
  • Feedforward control: Anticipates changes and activates mechanisms to prevent deviations. Example: Salivation before eating.

Chapter 5

  • Osmotic equilibrium: Total solute concentration is the same on both sides of the cell membrane, resulting in no net water movement.
  • Chemical disequilibrium: Uneven distribution of solutes (e.g., Na+, K+, Cl-) across the cell membrane.
  • Electrical disequilibrium: Charge differences across the membrane, typically around -70 mV. Maintained by ion channels and pumps like Na+/K+ ATPase.
  • Simple diffusion: Passive movement down a concentration gradient (e.g., oxygen and carbon dioxide). No energy or proteins required.
  • Protein-mediated transport: Includes facilitated diffusion, active transport, and ion channels. Facilitated diffusion is passive, using carrier proteins to move molecules down their concentration gradient. Active transport requires ATP to move molecules against their gradient. Ion channels facilitate the passage of specific ions.
  • Vesicular transport: Active process involving vesicles (e.g., exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis). Energy is required for vesicle formation and movement.

General Principles of Transport

  • Specificity: Certain transporters only move specific molecules.
  • Competition: Similar molecules can compete for the same transporter.
  • Saturation: High substrate concentrations reach a maximum transport rate (Tmax).
  • Carrier-mediated transport principles apply to receptors and ligands. (Specificity, Competition, Affinity, Saturation).

Membrane Potential

  • Ion permeability changes membrane potential.
  • Increased Na+ permeability depolarizes the membrane.
  • Increased K+ permeability repolarizes the membrane.
  • Decreased Cl− permeability can also affect the membrane potential if the equilibrium potential is more negative than the resting potential
  • Opposite charges attract, like charges repel. Separating opposite charges requires energy.

Chapter 6

  • Local communication:
  • Gap junctions: Direct cytoplasmic connections.
  • Contact-dependent signals: Require cell-to-cell contact.
  • Diffusing chemicals: Paracrine signaling (e.g., histamine, affecting nearby cells).
  • Long-distance communication:
  • Blood transport: Endocrine system (e.g., hormones like insulin).
  • Neurochemicals: Neurotransmitters (e.g., in synaptic clefts).

Hormone Actions

  • Lipophilic ligands (e.g., steroids) diffuse through the membrane, bind to intracellular receptors, activating DNA binding and gene expression, leading to new protein synthesis. This is a slower response.
  • Lipophobic ligands (e.g., peptides) bind to surface receptors, activating intracellular signaling pathways, and generating second messengers (e.g., cAMP, Ca++). This leads to rapid changes in cellular activity.

Cell Surface Receptors

  • Chemically gated (ligand-gated) ion channels (e.g., nicotinic ACh receptors).
  • G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)(e.g., adrenergic receptors).
  • Receptor-enzyme complexes (e.g., receptor tyrosine kinases).
  • Integrin receptors (e.g., integrins in cell adhesion).

Endocrine Reflexes

  • Stimulus: detected by a receptor.
  • Sensor: detects the stimulus.
  • Input signal: travels to integrating center.
  • Integrating center: processes and determines a response.
  • Output signal: travels to target via efferent pathways.
  • Target: the cell or organ that carries out the response.
  • Response occurs to restore homeostasis

Comparing Neural and Endocrine Reflexes

  • Neural reflexes are very fast (milliseconds), with discrete, highly specific targets, and use electrical and chemical signals.
  • Endocrine reflexes are slower (minutes to hours), affect many cells through the bloodstream, use chemical signals (hormones), and have a longer duration.

Endocrine Pathologies

  • Hypersecretion: excessive hormone production.
  • Hyposecretion: insufficient hormone production.
  • Abnormal target response: failure of the target cell response.

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Description

Test your knowledge on the fundamental concepts of physiology, including levels of organization and homeostasis. This quiz covers important processes like feedback mechanisms and osmotic equilibrium, essential for understanding how living organisms function. Perfect for students in biology or related fields.

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