Physics Motion and Forces

Physics

Motion

• Types of motion: rectilinear, circular, and periodic motion
• Distance and displacement: distance is total path length, displacement is shortest distance between initial and final positions
• Speed and velocity: speed is scalar, velocity is vector
• Acceleration: rate of change of velocity
• Equations of motion:
  • v = u + at
  • s = ut + 0.5at^2
  • v^2 = u^2 + 2as

Force and Newton's Laws

• Force: push or pull that causes an object to change its motion
• Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia): an object at rest remains at rest, an object in motion remains in motion, unless acted upon by an external force
• Newton's Second Law (Law of Acceleration): force is equal to the rate of change of momentum
  • F = ma
• Newton's Third Law (Law of Action and Reaction): every action has an equal and opposite reaction

Work and Energy

• Work: product of force and displacement
  • W = Fs
• Energy: capacity to do work
  • Types of energy: kinetic energy (KE), potential energy (PE)
• Conservation of energy: total energy of an isolated system remains constant

Light Reflection and Refraction

• Laws of reflection:
  • Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
  • Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal are coplanar
• Laws of refraction:
  • Snell's law: sin(i) / sin(r) = constant
  • Total internal reflection: occurs when angle of incidence exceeds critical angle

Chemistry

Chemical Reactions and Equations

• Chemical reaction: process of transformation of one or more substances into new substances
• Chemical equation: representation of a chemical reaction using chemical formulas
• Types of chemical reactions: combination, decomposition, displacement, and neutralization reactions
• Balancing chemical equations: ensuring that number of atoms of each element is same on both reactant and product sides

Acids, Bases, and Salts

• Acids: substances that donate H+ ions
• Bases: substances that accept H+ ions
• pH scale: measures acidity or basicity of a solution
• Acid-base neutralization reaction: reaction between acid and base to form salt and water
• Salts: compounds formed by reaction between acid and base

Metals and Non-Metals

• Metals: elements that are typically shiny, malleable, and good conductors of electricity
• Non-metals: elements that are typically dull, brittle, and poor conductors of electricity
• Physical and chemical properties of metals and non-metals
• Reactivity series: arrangement of metals in order of their reactivity

Biology

Life Processes

• Nutrition: process of obtaining energy and nutrients from food
• Respiration: process of releasing energy from food
• Transportation: process of transporting oxygen and nutrients to cells
• Excretion: process of removing waste products from the body

Control and Coordination

• Nervous system: system that coordinates and controls body functions
• Neurons: nerve cells that transmit and process information
• Reflex action: automatic response to a stimulus
• Hormones: chemical messengers that regulate various bodily functions

Heredity and Evolution

• Heredity: transmission of traits from parents to offspring
• Inheritance of traits: determination of traits by genes
• Evolution: process of change in species over time
• Principles of evolution: variation, mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection

Physics

Motion

• Three types of motion: rectilinear (straight line), circular (around a point), periodic (repeats over time).
• Distance measures total traveled path; displacement is the straight line from start to end.
• Speed is a scalar quantity (magnitude only), while velocity includes direction (vector quantity).
• Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity over time.
• Key equations of motion include:
  • v = u + at (final velocity = initial velocity + acceleration × time)
  • s = ut + 0.5at² (displacement = initial velocity × time + 0.5 × acceleration × time²)
  • v² = u² + 2as (final velocity squared = initial velocity squared + 2 × acceleration × displacement).

Force and Newton's Laws

• Force is a push or pull influencing an object's state of motion.
• Newton's First Law states that an object will maintain its state of rest or uniform motion unless acted on by an external force (inertia).
• Newton's Second Law defines force as the product of mass and acceleration (F = ma), indicating how the velocity of an object changes with applied force.
• Newton's Third Law declares that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Work and Energy

• Work is calculated as the product of force and the distance moved in the direction of that force (W = Fs).
• Energy signifies the capacity to perform work, with major types including kinetic energy (energy of motion) and potential energy (stored energy).
• The conservation of energy principle asserts that in an isolated system, energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

Light Reflection and Refraction

• Laws of reflection state:
  • The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
  • The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal line are all in the same plane.
• Laws of refraction include Snell's law, which relates the angles of incidence (i) and refraction (r) by the equation sin(i)/sin(r) = constant.
• Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence exceeds a specific critical angle.

Chemistry

Chemical Reactions and Equations

• A chemical reaction involves transforming one or more substances into new products.
• A chemical equation uses formulas to represent the substances involved in a reaction.
• Types of chemical reactions include:
  • Combination (multiple reactants form one product),
  • Decomposition (one compound breaks into two or more substances),
  • Displacement (one element replaces another in a compound),
  • Neutralization (acid and base form salt and water).
• Balancing chemical equations ensures equal numbers of atoms for each element are represented on both sides.

Acids, Bases, and Salts

• Acids release H+ ions in solution, acting as proton donors.
• Bases accept H+ ions, functioning as proton acceptors.
• The pH scale quantifies the acidity or alkalinity of solutions from 0 (strong acids) to 14 (strong bases), with 7 being neutral.
• Acid-base neutralization results in the formation of a salt and water.
• Salts are formed when acids react chemically with bases.

Metals and Non-Metals

• Metals are generally shiny, malleable, ductile, and excellent conductors of electricity.
• Non-metals, in contrast, possess a dull appearance, are brittle, and conduct electricity poorly.
• Metals and non-metals exhibit distinct physical and chemical properties.
• The reactivity series ranks metals based on their reactivity, guiding predictions about their behavior in reactions.

Biology

Life Processes

• Nutrition refers to the intake of food for energy and nutrients necessary for survival.
• Respiration is the metabolic process of breaking down food to release energy.
• Transportation encompasses the movement of oxygen and nutrients throughout the body.
• Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products from an organism.

Control and Coordination

• The nervous system regulates and coordinates physiological activities.
• Neurons are specialized cells responsible for transmitting and processing information.
• Reflex actions are immediate, automatic responses to stimuli requiring little conscious thought.
• Hormones act as chemical messengers in the body, influencing various physiological functions.

Heredity and Evolution

• Heredity is the genetic transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
• Traits are determined by genes, which dictate characteristics.
• Evolution describes gradual processes that lead to changes in species over time.
• Fundamental principles of evolution include variation, mutation, genetic drift, and natural selection, explaining how species adapt and evolve.

Test your understanding of physics concepts including types of motion, distance and displacement, speed and velocity, acceleration, and Newton's laws of motion.