Physics Fundamental Forces and Laws

Gravitational Force:
- Attractive force between masses.
- Weakest of the four fundamental forces.
Electromagnetic Force:
- Acts between charged particles.
- Responsible for electricity, magnetism, and light.
Weak Nuclear Force:
- Responsible for radioactive decay and neutrino interactions.
- Operates at the subatomic level.
Strong Nuclear Force:
- Holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.
- Strongest force but acts over short ranges.

Newton's First Law:
- An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by an external force.
Newton's Second Law:
- Force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma).
Newton's Third Law:
- For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Kinetic Energy:
- Energy of motion, calculated as KE = 1/2 mv².
Potential Energy:
- Stored energy based on position, such as gravitational potential energy (PE = mgh).
Conservation of Energy:
- Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.

First Law:
- Energy is conserved in thermodynamic processes.
Second Law:
- Entropy of an isolated system always increases; processes occur in the direction of increased disorder.
Third Law:
- As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches zero.

Wave Properties:
- Wavelength, frequency, amplitude, speed.
Types of Waves:
- Mechanical (require medium) vs. Electromagnetic (do not require medium).
Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction:
- Reflection: Bouncing of waves off surfaces.
- Refraction: Bending of waves when passing through different media.
- Diffraction: Spreading of waves when passing through openings.

Ohm's Law:
- Voltage = Current × Resistance (V = IR).
Magnetic Fields:
- Created by moving charges; described by field lines.
Electromagnetic Induction:
- Generation of voltage by changing a magnetic field.

Quantum Mechanics:
- Describes behavior of particles at atomic and subatomic levels.
- Key concepts include wave-particle duality and uncertainty principle.
Relativity:
- Special Relativity: Time and space are relative; mass-energy equivalence (E = mc²).
- General Relativity: Gravity is the curvature of spacetime.

SI Units:
- Length (meter), mass (kilogram), time (second), electric current (ampere), temperature (kelvin).
Fundamental Constants:
- Speed of light (c ≈ 3 x 10^8 m/s), gravitational constant (G ≈ 6.674 x 10^-11 m³/kg/s²), Planck's constant (h ≈ 6.626 x 10^-34 Js).

Four fundamental forces: gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear.
Gravitational Force: Weaker than other forces; attracts masses towards each other.
Electromagnetic Force: Acts between charged particles; underlies electricity, magnetism, and light phenomena.
Weak Nuclear Force: Involved in radioactive decay and neutrino interactions; affects subatomic particles.
Strong Nuclear Force: Strongest force; binds protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei over short distances.

Newton's First Law: Objects remain at rest or in uniform motion unless influenced by an external force.
Newton's Second Law: Force (F) is the product of mass (m) and acceleration (a), expressed as F = ma.
Newton's Third Law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction, maintaining balance.

Kinetic Energy (KE): Energy possessed by a moving object, calculated by KE = 1/2 mv².
Potential Energy (PE): Stored energy based on an object's position, such as gravitational PE = mgh.
Conservation of Energy: Energy transforms forms but cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system.

First Law: Energy conservation applies to thermodynamic processes; total energy remains constant.
Second Law: Entropy, a measure of disorder, increases in isolated systems, dictating spontaneous process direction.
Third Law: Approaching absolute zero results in the entropy of a perfect crystal minimizing towards zero.

Wave Properties: Include wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and speed which characterize wave behavior.
Types of Waves: Mechanical waves require a medium to travel, while electromagnetic waves do not.
Reflection: Waves bounce off reflective surfaces; Refraction: Waves bend at media boundaries; Diffraction: Waves spread when passing through narrow openings.

Ohm's Law: Describes the relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) as V = IR.
Magnetic Fields: Result from moving charges; illustrated with magnetic field lines that visualize strength and direction.
Electromagnetic Induction: Voltage generation occurs through changing magnetic fields, crucial for electric generation.

Quantum Mechanics: Governs the behavior of particles at atomic and subatomic levels; includes wave-particle duality and Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Relativity:
- Special Relativity: Emphasizes relative nature of time and space, encapsulated in mass-energy equivalence E = mc².
- General Relativity: Describes gravity as the curvature of spacetime due to mass.

SI Units: Includes meters (length), kilograms (mass), seconds (time), amperes (electric current), and kelvins (temperature).
Fundamental Constants: Speed of light (c ≈ 3 x 10^8 m/s), gravitational constant (G ≈ 6.674 x 10^-11 m³/kg/s²), Planck's constant (h ≈ 6.626 x 10^-34 Js).

Engineering: Essential for designing structures, machinery, and electronic devices.
Medicine: Advances like X-rays, MRI imaging techniques, and radiation therapy benefit health care.
Astronomy: Facilitates the study of celestial events and understanding of the universe.

Isaac Newton: Foundational work on the laws of motion and universal gravitation transformed classical physics.
Albert Einstein: Revolutionized theoretical physics with relativity theory and contributions to quantum mechanics.
Niels Bohr: Advanced atomic structure theories and quantum mechanics.
James Clerk Maxwell: Integrated electricity and magnetism into comprehensive equations describing electromagnetic phenomena.