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Questions and Answers
What type of pattern does physical development follow in infancy?
What type of pattern does physical development follow in infancy?
Which reflex occurs when an object is placed in an infant's mouth?
Which reflex occurs when an object is placed in an infant's mouth?
What does the Moro reflex involve?
What does the Moro reflex involve?
Which type of muscle activities are classified as gross motor skills in infancy?
Which type of muscle activities are classified as gross motor skills in infancy?
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What reflex involves the infant turning their head to find something to suck when the cheek or side of the mouth is touched?
What reflex involves the infant turning their head to find something to suck when the cheek or side of the mouth is touched?
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What reflex may be interpreted as a way of grabbing support while falling in an infant?
What reflex may be interpreted as a way of grabbing support while falling in an infant?
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What is the term for the recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation?
What is the term for the recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation?
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At what age do infants develop the ability to perceive that occluded objects are whole?
At what age do infants develop the ability to perceive that occluded objects are whole?
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What is the ability to relate and integrate information from two or more sensory modalities called?
What is the ability to relate and integrate information from two or more sensory modalities called?
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Which term describes the discrimination between some colors by infants at 8 weeks of age?
Which term describes the discrimination between some colors by infants at 8 weeks of age?
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What is the term for the interpretation of what is sensed by the sensory receptors?
What is the term for the interpretation of what is sensed by the sensory receptors?
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At what age do newborns start to prefer salty tastes?
At what age do newborns start to prefer salty tastes?
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What is the term for cognitive development mechanism when children adjust schemes to fit new information and experiences?
What is the term for cognitive development mechanism when children adjust schemes to fit new information and experiences?
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Which stage of Piaget's theory involves infants coordinating vision and touch, hand and eye, and directing their actions outwardly?
Which stage of Piaget's theory involves infants coordinating vision and touch, hand and eye, and directing their actions outwardly?
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In which stage do infants exhibit the ability to imitate simple actions and physical gestures, moving beyond preoccupation with themselves?
In which stage do infants exhibit the ability to imitate simple actions and physical gestures, moving beyond preoccupation with themselves?
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What kind of behaviors are coordinated through reflexive behaviors like rooting and sucking in infants?
What kind of behaviors are coordinated through reflexive behaviors like rooting and sucking in infants?
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What is the grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system in Piaget's theory?
What is the grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system in Piaget's theory?
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In which stage do infants primarily focus on reflexes and voluntary actions, trying to reproduce events that initially occurred by chance?
In which stage do infants primarily focus on reflexes and voluntary actions, trying to reproduce events that initially occurred by chance?
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What is the process that occurs when children adjust their mental schemes to accommodate new information or experiences?
What is the process that occurs when children adjust their mental schemes to accommodate new information or experiences?
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In Piaget's theory, what do infants develop the ability for during the sensorimotor stage?
In Piaget's theory, what do infants develop the ability for during the sensorimotor stage?
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What is the term for schemes in which an infant purposely explores new possibilities with objects?
What is the term for schemes in which an infant purposely explores new possibilities with objects?
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Which mechanism allows children to shift from one stage of thought to the next according to Piaget's theory?
Which mechanism allows children to shift from one stage of thought to the next according to Piaget's theory?
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What is the mistake called when infants select a familiar hiding place over a new hiding place?
What is the mistake called when infants select a familiar hiding place over a new hiding place?
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Which type of memory involves conscious recollection of facts and experiences?
Which type of memory involves conscious recollection of facts and experiences?
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Which type of child, according to Chess and Thomas' classification, is generally in a positive mood and adapts easily to new experiences?
Which type of child, according to Chess and Thomas' classification, is generally in a positive mood and adapts easily to new experiences?
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What is the term for the type of child, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification, that includes approach, pleasure, activity, smiling, and laughter?
What is the term for the type of child, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification, that includes approach, pleasure, activity, smiling, and laughter?
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Which type of child, according to Kagan's classification, is shy, subdued, and timid?
Which type of child, according to Kagan's classification, is shy, subdued, and timid?
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What is the term for the type of child, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification, that includes fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort?
What is the term for the type of child, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification, that includes fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort?
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Which type of child, according to Chess and Thomas' classification, reacts negatively and cries frequently, and is slow to accept change?
Which type of child, according to Chess and Thomas' classification, reacts negatively and cries frequently, and is slow to accept change?
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What is the term for the type of control, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification, that includes attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure?
What is the term for the type of control, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification, that includes attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure?
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What is the term for the type of child, according to Chess and Thomas' classification, that is slow to warm up and has a low activity level?
What is the term for the type of child, according to Chess and Thomas' classification, that is slow to warm up and has a low activity level?
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Which type of child, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification, is extraverted and bold?
Which type of child, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification, is extraverted and bold?
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According to Kagan's classification, what type of child is shy, subdued, and timid?
According to Kagan's classification, what type of child is shy, subdued, and timid?
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What is the term for the type of control, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification, that includes attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure?
What is the term for the type of control, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification, that includes attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure?
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According to Chess and Thomas' classification, which type of child is generally in a positive mood and adapts easily to new experiences?
According to Chess and Thomas' classification, which type of child is generally in a positive mood and adapts easily to new experiences?
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What is the relation between Effortful control and later academic success, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification?
What is the relation between Effortful control and later academic success, according to Rothbart and Bates' classification?
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What is the primary reason behind attachment according to Freud?
What is the primary reason behind attachment according to Freud?
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According to John Bowlby, what phase of attachment occurs from 7 to 27 months?
According to John Bowlby, what phase of attachment occurs from 7 to 27 months?
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What is the term for 'reading' emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation?
What is the term for 'reading' emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation?
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At what age do children start to understand others and make appropriate social responses?
At what age do children start to understand others and make appropriate social responses?
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What is the primary factor that enables infants to initiate social interactions independently?
What is the primary factor that enables infants to initiate social interactions independently?
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What type of attachment is characterized by babies who cling to the caregiver and then resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness?
What type of attachment is characterized by babies who cling to the caregiver and then resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness?
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What is the primary characteristic of phase 4 of attachment according to John Bowlby?
What is the primary characteristic of phase 4 of attachment according to John Bowlby?
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What type of caregivers are often associated with securely attached babies?
What type of caregivers are often associated with securely attached babies?
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What is the result of reciprocal socialization in infant development?
What is the result of reciprocal socialization in infant development?
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What is the outcome associated with secure attachment in terms of emotional health?
What is the outcome associated with secure attachment in terms of emotional health?
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What type of babies tend to have caregivers who are neglectful or physically abusive?
What type of babies tend to have caregivers who are neglectful or physically abusive?
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What type of babies tend to have caregivers who are inconsistent and not very affectionate?
What type of babies tend to have caregivers who are inconsistent and not very affectionate?
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At what stage of Piaget's theory do children begin to reason and form stable concepts?
At what stage of Piaget's theory do children begin to reason and form stable concepts?
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What is the term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child alone but can be learned with guidance according to Vygotsky's theory?
What is the term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child alone but can be learned with guidance according to Vygotsky's theory?
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What is the limitation of preoperational thought that involves centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others?
What is the limitation of preoperational thought that involves centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others?
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What is the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present, according to Piaget's theory?
What is the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present, according to Piaget's theory?
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What is the process of changing the level of support and instruction provided as children's ability increases, according to Vygotsky's theory?
What is the process of changing the level of support and instruction provided as children's ability increases, according to Vygotsky's theory?
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What is the characteristic of preoperational thought that involves the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action?
What is the characteristic of preoperational thought that involves the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action?
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Study Notes
Cognitive Development in Infancy
- Piaget's (1954) Theory of Infant Development:
- Schemes: mental representations
- Assimilation: using existing schemes to deal with new information
- Accommodation: adjusting schemes to fit new information
- Organization: grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system
- Equilibration: mechanism by which children shift from one stage of thought to the next
Sensorimotor Stage in Infancy
- Simple reflexes: sensation and action are coordinated through reflexive behaviors (e.g., rooting and sucking)
- First habits and primary circular reactions: coordination of sensation with a focus on the infant's body
- Habits (reflex) → From voluntary → e.g., grasp things, suck their mouth
- Primary circular reactions: schemes based on reproducing events that initially occurred by chance
- Secondary circular reactions: infants become more object-oriented, moving beyond preoccupation with the self
- Actions are repeated because of their consequences
- Imitates simple actions and physical gestures
- Coordination of secondary circular reactions: combines vision and touch, hand and eye
- Actions become more outwardly directed → point something
- Readily combines and recombines previously learned schemes
- Presence of intentionality (e.g., knocking over one block to reach and play with another)
- Tertiary circular reactions: schemes in which an infant purposely explores new possibilities with objects
- Continually doing new things to them and exploring the results
- Internalization of schemes: developing the ability to use primitive symbols
- Object permanence: understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched
Learning and Memory
- Joint attention: two or more individuals focus on the same object or event
- Memory:
- Implicit memory: memory without conscious recollection
- Explicit memory: conscious remembering of facts and experiences
- Maturation of the hippocampus and cerebral cortex (especially important for physical development in infancy)
Physical Development in Infancy
- Cephalocaudal pattern: head-to-tail development
- Proximodistal pattern: center-to-extremities development
- Brain development in infancy:
- Shaken baby syndrome: serious brain injury resulting from forcefully shaking an infant
- Early deprived environment associated with impairment in brain development (but reversible in some individuals)
Motor Development
- Body reflexes in infancy:
- Rooting reflex: when the infant's cheek or the side of the mouth is touched, they turn their head to find something to suck
- Sucking reflex: when an object is placed in the infant's mouth, they automatically suck
- Moro reflex: when there is a sudden, intense noise or movement, the infant throws their head back, flings out arms and legs, and arches their back
- Grasping reflex: when something touches the infant's palms, they react by grasping tightly
- Gross motor skills: large-muscle activities (e.g., rolling, sitting, crawling, standing, and walking)
- Fine motor skills:
- Palmar grasp: grasping with the whole hand
- Pincer grip: grasping small objects with thumb and forefinger
Sensation and Perception
- Sensation: the product of the interaction between information and sensory receptors (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin)
- Perception: the interpretation of what is sensed
- Visual preference method: measures the length of time infants attend to different stimuli to determine whether they can distinguish between stimuli
- Habituation: decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations
- Dishabituation: recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation
- Color vision: infants can discriminate between some colors by 8 weeks
- Perceptual constancy: allows infants to perceive the world as stable
- Size constancy: recognition that an object remains the same even though the retinal image of the object changes as you move toward or away from the object
- Shape constancy: recognition that an object's shape remains the same even though its orientation changes
- Perception of occluded objects: infants don't perceive objects that are occluded by other objects as complete in their first month
- Depth perception: "Visual cliff" experiments by Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
- Hearing: fetus can hear sounds in the mother's womb during the last two months of pregnancy
- Touch, smell, and taste: newborns can respond to touch and feel pain, differentiate odors, and prefer salty tastes at 4 months of age
Intermodal Perception and Individual Differences
- Intermodal perception: ability to relate and integrate information from two or more sensory modalities (e.g., vision and hearing)
- Individual differences in attachment:
- Chess and Thomas' (1977) classification: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up children
- Kagan's (2002) behavioral inhibition: inhibited and sociable children
- Rothbart and Bates' (2006) classification: extraversion/surgency, negative affectivity, and effortful control
Contextual Influence and Socialization
- Reciprocal socialization: bidirectional influence between children and parents
- Caregiving style and attachment: caregivers' behavior influences attachment style
- Social orientation: face-to-face play starts at 2 to 3 months of age
- Joint attention and gaze-following: help infants understand that others have intentions
- Social referencing: "reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation
Attachment and its Development
- Attachment: a close emotional bond between two people
- John Bowlby's (1969, 1989) four phases of attachment:
- From birth to 2 months: infants direct their attachment to human figures
- From 2 to 7 months: attachment becomes focused on one figure (primary caregiver)
- From 7 to 27 months: specific attachments develop
- From 24 months on: children become aware of others' feelings and goals and account for them in their own actions
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Description
Explore the concepts of physical development in infancy, focusing on the cephalocaudal (head-to-tail) and proximodistal (center to extremities) patterns. Learn about brain development, shaken baby syndrome, and the impact of early deprived environments on infant brain development.
