Philosophy Quiz: Pre-Socratic and Socratic Methods

Pre-Socratic and Relativist Philosophies

• Heraclitus observed the constant change in the phenomenal world, concluding that true knowledge is unattainable in an absolute sense due to constant becoming.
• Protagoras' relativism posits that truth is relative to the individual perceiver, meaning what's true for one person might not be for another. Truth is subjective and varies.

Socratic Elenchus

• Socrates' elenchus is a method of questioning used to test and refine beliefs through dialogue and uncovering contradictions in reasoning.
• The process involves posing a question, examining responses for contradictions, refining beliefs, and repeating this until a better understanding is reached or the person acknowledges lack of knowledge.

Socratic Method of Hypothesis

• This approach involves proposing a hypothesis, testing its implications and consequences, and evaluating the results. If contradictions arise, the hypothesis is rejected, and a new one is proposed. The aim is to explore possibilities, systematically developing ideas.
• The goal is to constructively explore possibilities and develop ideas step by step, aiming for a more systematic solution.

Aporia

• "Aporia" means impasse, perplexity, or lack of a clear path forward.
• It describes philosophical dialogues that end with an inability to arrive at a conclusive resolution.

Socrates' Daimon

• Socrates describes his daimon as a divine voice or spiritual guide, and claimed this influence warns him against doing wrong.

Philosophic Way of Life (Apology)

• Socrates' defense in The Apology focuses on living justly, virtuously, adhering to right and good, and the importance of the philosophical way of life.
• Socrates argues that living virtuously is paramount, that his actions are motivated by a desire for truth and justice and that he was fulfilling his divine mission as a philosopher.

Philosophic way of life (Phaedo)

• Socrates' views death as merely the separation of the soul from the body and the freeing of the soul from the constraints of the physical world.
• Socrates argued that philosophy serves as a means of preparation for death and that true wisdom and the pursuit of truth are superior to bodily pleasures and material possessions.

Sophistry v Philosophy

• Sophists focus on rhetoric and persuasive argumentation, sometimes employing fallacies in their arguments.
• Philosophers seek truth and understanding employing critical thinking and rational arguments to arrive at well reasoned conclusions.

Plato's Indirectness

• Plato's dialogues often present diverse viewpoints and conflicting ideas without explicitly endorsing his own conclusions.

Platonic Irony

• A rhetorical device presented through questioning, mocking, and posing different views to stimulate further inquiry.

The Divided Line

• Plato's Divided Line depicts two realms of reality: the visible realm of appearances and the intelligible realm of Forms (including mathematical objects and true forms).
• The Visible Realm includes images, shadows, and physical objects which are imperfect copies or representations of the true reality.
• The Intelligible Realm represents true knowledge of Forms, unchanging and perfect concepts that underpin the physical world.

The Affinity Argument

• Aristotle's "Affinity Argument" explains the relationship between the visible (things perceived by the senses) and the invisible (Forms)
• It posits that Forms are the underlying reality that is unchanging and unchanging whereas the visible realm of particulars is merely copies.

The Allegory of the Cave

• Plato's Allegory of the Cave illustrates the difference between illusion and true knowledge.
• Prisoners chained in a cave mistake shadows for reality until one escapes and discovers the true world of the Forms.
• The freed prisoner returns to the cave to share the truth and is rejected but the true reality is shown.

Essentialism (Plato)

• Plato's essentialism posits that the true nature of things lies in unchanging Forms, which are perfect models or ideal concepts of which particulars in the material world are imperfect copies.

Essentialism (Aristotle)

• Aristotle's essentialism disagrees with Plato asserting that essences reside within things instead of separate realms. Aristotle believed that everything has a specific nature that dictates its properties and purposes in the world.

Difference between "Knack" and "Craft"

• A knack is a skill acquired through experience rather than formal training, while a craft stems from deliberate knowledge, and mastery of principles and techniques.

Eudaimonia

• Eudaimonia is Aristotle's concept of flourishing or a state of living well, it's considered to be the ultimate goal of human life.

Virtue

• Aristotle argued that virtue is a mean between two extremes (excess and deficiency) in character traits and actions. For example courageous isn't the absence of fear but a thoughtful middle ground regarding the emotional response to danger.

Intrinsic v Extrinsic Goods

• Intrinsic goods are valuable in themselves, like happiness and virtue.
• Extrinsic goods are valuable as means to an end, like money and health.

The Golden Mean

• Aristotle's Golden Mean is a middle ground between two extremes, representing virtuous character and behavior.

Ataraxia

• Ataraxia represents a state of tranquility and freedom from anxiety or mental distress, often associated with Epicureanism as a state of happiness.

Groundless v Natural Desires (Epicureans)

• Groundless desires are not essential for happiness.
• Natural desires are essential for happiness.

Living in Harmony with Nature (Stoicism)

• Stoicism emphasizes living in accordance with nature's rational order and accepting what is beyond our control.

Stages of Methodological Doubt (Descartes)

• Descartes' method of doubt involves systematically questioning all beliefs to arrive at a foundation of indubitable knowledge.
• The Stages of Doubt: doubt of the senses, dreaming argument, deceiving God hypothesis, evil demon hypothesis.

Cogito Ergo Sum

• Descartes' famous declaration "Cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am") asserting that the act of doubting one's own existence proves the existence of a thinking self.

Wax Example (Descartes)

• Descartes' wax example demonstrates the superiority of reason over sensory experience in gaining knowledge and understanding.

Rationalism vs Empiricism

• Rationalism emphasizes reason and innate ideas.
• Empiricism emphasizes sensory experience and observation.

Primary Qualities vs Secondary Qualities (Locke)

• Primary qualities are inherent to an object (e.g., shape, size)
• Secondary qualities are created by how our senses perceive the object (e.g. color, smell)

Hume's Fork

• Hume's fork differentiates between relations of ideas (justified a priori) and matters of fact (justified a posteriori).

Matters of Fact vs Relations of Ideas

• Matters of fact deal with empirical observations and experience, while relations of ideas concern concepts and logical connections.

Metaphysics of Presence (Heidegger)

• Heidegger's metaphysics of presence critiques traditional philosophical views that treat Being as a substance or object.
• This critique argues that these views miss the deep significance of experience and the human existence within a context of time, history, and engagement with the world.

Nihilism

• Nihilism is the philosophical viewpoint that life is inherently without meaning or purpose.
• Different types of nihilism include Jacobi (monistic, atheistic), Turgenev (denial of everything), and Nietzsche (Death of God/crisis of meaning).