Philosophy of Science: Key Figures
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Questions and Answers

What distinguishes natural kinds from human kinds in research?

  • Human kinds are independent of human interpretation.
  • Natural kinds exist independently of our knowledge of them. (correct)
  • Human kinds are defined purely by biological characteristics.
  • Natural kinds require human intervention to exist.

Which approach suggests that knowledge is constructed through interactions with others?

  • Empiricism
  • Positivism
  • Natural science approach
  • Social constructionism (correct)

In the context of social sciences, what does the term 'double hermeneutic' refer to?

  • The mutual influence of understanding between individuals. (correct)
  • Single-sided interpretation of observable phenomena.
  • Independent understanding between the researcher and the subject.
  • The inability to interpret subjective accounts.

How does constructivism differ from social constructionism regarding knowledge?

<p>Constructivism focuses on individual meaning-making. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major limitation noted regarding Kuhn's concept of paradigm shifts?

<p>The concept lacks conceptual clarity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to constructivism, how is knowledge built?

<p>It is collaboratively constructed through social interactions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the nature of social objects according to both constructivism and social constructionism?

<p>They only have meaning through collective human interaction. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In exploring psychological research, what issue arises due to the nature of human kinds?

<p>Human actions can be misinterpreted due to their subjective nature. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does positivism assume about the nature of the world?

<p>The world exists independently of us. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which reasoning process is NOT associated with Charles Sanders Peirce?

<p>Reduction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does post-positivism differ from positivism?

<p>Post-positivism acknowledges limitations in scientific findings. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Karl Popper, what is required to disconfirm a universal hypothesis?

<p>A single contrary observation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Thomas Kuhn's exploration of scientific paradigms?

<p>The interconnected statements that define how science is practiced (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind abduction as proposed by Peirce?

<p>It generates a plausible hypothesis connecting observations to causes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Willard Quine's perspective on the scientific method?

<p>It is theory-laden and influenced by prior beliefs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which philosopher argued that scientific claims can be falsified as singular statements?

<p>Karl Popper (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does Lakatos expand on the ideas of Kuhn and Popper?

<p>By categorizing knowledge claims into hardcore and auxiliary hypotheses (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What issue does post-positivism raise regarding the relationship between theory and observation?

<p>Disconfirming data may indicate a problem with observations rather than the theory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'conditionality' refer to in Popper's philosophy?

<p>The acceptance of temporary truths until proven otherwise. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Kuhn suggest scientists do with their core theories?

<p>They cling to them for as long as possible (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do Popper and Kuhn differ in their understanding of what experiments target?

<p>Popper believes they target core hypotheses while Kuhn views them as puzzles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Imre Lakatos distinguish between in his discussion of scientific hypothesis?

<p>Refutation and rejection of hypotheses (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of scientific progress do both Kuhn and Popper challenge?

<p>The idea that science progresses solely through fact accumulation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'positive heuristic' in Lakatos's theory refer to?

<p>The drive of science to evolve and advance (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of interpretivism in understanding human behavior?

<p>The subjective experience and understanding of individuals (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which perspective does the feminist approach primarily adopt in knowledge construction?

<p>An insider's viewpoint (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do feminist approaches view the data that is typically excluded from traditional knowledge?

<p>As potentially more valid than included data (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do post-positivistic epistemologies use in their research methods?

<p>Both natural sciences methods and interpretive approaches (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does discourse play according to social constructionists?

<p>It is considered an action and behavior that constructs reality (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the assumptions of interpretivism?

<p>Human behavior is complex and shaped by individual perceptions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant aspect of knowledge according to feminist approaches?

<p>Knowledge is situated and contingent on context (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the perspective of discursive psychology?

<p>A social constructionist perspective (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of auxiliary hypotheses in scientific research programs?

<p>To address known anomalies and protect the hard core. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic must a scientific program exhibit to be considered progressive?

<p>It consistently predicts empirical content that was previously unknown. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the negative heuristic in scientific research primarily aim to achieve?

<p>To prevent the falsification of the core tenets of a theory. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does post-positivism view knowledge in scientific inquiry?

<p>Knowledge is reconstructive and can reinterpret past information. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Khunian values, what function does a theory serve in scientific inquiry?

<p>To isolate phenomena and prevent data confusion. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about a research program that fails to explain anomalies?

<p>It may be considered degenerating. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the implications of scientific knowledge being temporally situated?

<p>What is known today may be proven incorrect in the future. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a scientific program produces competing claims to knowledge?

<p>The programs may coexist, leading to diverse understanding. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the principle of universalism in scientific values imply?

<p>There should be a shared set of objective criteria for evaluating scientific ideas. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of 'disinterestedness' in science?

<p>Scientists should approach science with a sense of neutrality. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does modern psychology align with Popperian science?

<p>It attempts to falsify the null hypothesis in its research. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect undermines psychology's classification as a Kuhnian science?

<p>Psychology has fragmented into numerous sub-disciplines without major shifts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do modern psychologists generally view the use of p-values in research?

<p>They treat p-values as arbitrary and question their efficacy in supporting theories. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one criticism mentioned about psychologists regarding their scientific practices?

<p>They engage in more debates about fundamentals than natural scientists. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of communalism in science advocate?

<p>Scientific knowledge should be a shared resource accessible to all. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential limit of psychology's use of null hypothesis significance testing (NHST)?

<p>NHST can yield misleading conclusions if p-values are interpreted incorrectly. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Realism

The idea that the world exists independently of our perception and can be observed and studied.

Empiricism

The belief that knowledge is gained through observation and experience.

Induction

Using observations to make general conclusions or theories.

Deduction

Testing hypotheses and making predictions based on existing theories.

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Abduction

A way of reasoning that proposes a possible explanation for an observation, even if there's not enough evidence to confirm it directly. It involves connecting observations to underlying causes.

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Post-Positivism

The idea that scientific discoveries don't perfectly reflect reality, acknowledging the limitations of observation and interpretation.

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Disconfirmation

The idea that a single contradictory observation is enough to disprove a scientific theory.

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Theory-laden Observations

The idea that scientific observations are influenced by the theories being investigated, making them subjective.

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Scientific Paradigm

A set of interconnected statements that define how science is done within a particular field. It acts as a framework for scientific understanding and research.

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Normal Science

Science conducted within an accepted paradigm, where scientists focus on solving puzzles and expanding knowledge within its framework.

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Anomaly

Observations or experimental results that conflict with the prevailing scientific paradigm, potentially leading to a scientific revolution.

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Scientific Revolution

A period of radical change in science where the dominant paradigm is overthrown and replaced by a new one, often due to the accumulation of anomalies.

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Positivist View of Science

The idea that scientific progress occurs through the accumulation of facts and the refinement of existing knowledge.

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Falsification Account of Science

The view that scientific progress occurs through the falsification of theories, where scientists aim to disprove hypotheses.

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Hardcore (Scientific Paradigm)

A set of fundamental assumptions that form the core of a scientific paradigm. These assumptions are considered irreplaceable.

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Auxiliary Hypotheses

Hypotheses or assumptions that are derived from the hardcore of a scientific paradigm and are subject to testing and falsification.

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Hard Core of a Research Program

A set of core beliefs that are considered fundamental and rarely questioned.

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Theoretical Progression

This principle states that a scientific theory should be able to explain new phenomena and predict new observations.

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Empirical Progression

Empirically progression occurs when the predictions made by a theory are actually confirmed through experiments or observations.

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Negative Heuristic

The process of modifying auxiliary hypotheses to fit new information and accommodate anomalies while preserving the core tenets of a scientific theory.

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Progressive vs. Degenerating Research

A scientific research program is considered progressive when it successfully explains new phenomena and makes accurate predictions. However, if it fails to do so, it is considered degenerating.

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Reconstructive Nature of Knowledge

Knowledge is seen as constantly evolving and subject to change as new evidence emerges and interpretations shift, rather than simply accumulating.

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Temporally Situated Knowledge

Science is inherently influenced by the historical context in which it is developed, and past scientific knowledge can be reevaluated and even overturned as our understanding advances.

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Paradigm Shift

The idea that scientific progress happens through periods of normal science interrupted by paradigm shifts, where a dominant theory is replaced by a new one.

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Paradigm

A set of shared assumptions, theories, and methods within a scientific community.

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Natural Kinds

Concepts that exist independently of human interpretation, like rocks or atoms.

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Human Kinds

Concepts that are defined by human actions and interpretations, like social norms or political systems.

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Double Hermeneutic

The idea that scientific inquiry in the social sciences involves a double interpretation: We try to understand others, and they try to understand us.

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Constructivism

A theory that emphasizes the learner's active construction of knowledge through interaction with the social world.

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Social Constructionism

A theory that argues that reality itself is socially constructed through shared meanings and interactions.

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Discourse

The idea that meanings are created and negotiated through language and discourse.

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Mertonian Values

These are principles that guide scientific practice, emphasizing objectivity, sharing knowledge, and rigorous skepticism. They include originality, universalism, communalism, disinterestedness, and organized skepticism.

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Universalism (Mertonian Value)

This principle suggests that scientific findings should be evaluated using a common set of objective standards, regardless of the researcher's identity or affiliations.

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Communalism (Mertonian Value)

This principle emphasizes the importance of sharing scientific knowledge freely within the scientific community, fostering collaboration and progress.

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Disinterestedness (Mertonian Value)

This principle encourages scientists to prioritize the pursuit of knowledge rather than personal gain or self-promotion, ensuring objectivity in research.

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Organized Skepticism (Mertonian Value)

This principle encourages scientists to systematically question and challenge scientific findings and theories before accepting them as truth, promoting critical thinking and objectivity.

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Popperian Science

This philosophical approach to science emphasizes the importance of falsifying hypotheses, meaning attempting to disprove them through rigorous experimentation and observation.

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Kuhnian Science

This philosophy of science highlights the importance of paradigms in scientific progress, emphasizing the role of revolutionary shifts in scientific understanding.

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Fragmentation in Psychology

This refers to the fragmentation of psychology into various sub-disciplines, lacking a unified overarching theory, making it difficult to identify clear Kuhnian paradigm shifts.

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Interpretivism

A research approach that emphasizes understanding subjective experiences and meanings, assuming people interpret and make sense of the world differently.

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Feminist Approach

A perspective challenging traditional knowledge construction, aiming to give voice to marginalized groups and highlight inequalities in knowledge production.

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Post-Positivistic Epistemologies

Alternative epistemologies that use scientific methods but focus on interpretation and understanding rather than universal truths. They often employ qualitative methods and consider phenomena as having purpose.

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Discursive Psychology

A perspective that emphasizes the role of social discourse in shaping individual behavior and understanding.

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Interpretivist View of Behavior

The belief that behavior is more than just reactions to external stimuli, considering the complexity of human mental life and individual interpretations.

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Emic Perspective

An approach that adopts an insider's viewpoint, seeking to understand a phenomenon from the perspectives of those involved.

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Qualitative and Inductive Approach

A research approach that relies on qualitative methods like interviews and focus groups, leading to inductive conclusions based on observations.

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Study Notes

Roger Bacon

  • A medieval Franciscan friar who promoted empirical observation, experimentation, systematic record-keeping, inductive reasoning, and an interdisciplinary approach to knowledge.
  • Advocated for naturalistic philosophy, asserting that empirical knowledge reveals the true nature of creation.
  • Identified three sources of knowledge: authority, reason, and experience.
  • Also proposed three purposes for science: discovering truth, providing moral and ethical guidance, and developing useful knowledge.

William of Occam

  • Known for Occam's razor, a principle suggesting choosing the simplest explanation among competing hypotheses.
  • Related to the representative heuristic and conjunction fallacy.

Isaac Newton

  • Founded physics as a distinct discipline, separating it from philosophy.
  • Emphasized empirical data collection and inductive reasoning.
  • Used large-scale observation in his work.

David Hume

  • Critiqued induction, highlighting problems with assuming that past events predict future outcomes.
  • Discussed issues of deductive reasoning, analytics, and a priori relation ideas and probable problems with inductive reasoning; synthetic a posteriori and matters of fact.
  • Introduced the availability heuristic, suggesting that people judge probabilities based on ease of recall of similar instances.

Auguste Comte

  • Credited with founding positivism, emphasizing empirical observation and scientific principles over theological or metaphysical speculation.
  • Positivism postulates realism (an independent world), empiricism (knowledge through observation), and induction (creating universal theories from observations).

Charles Sanders Peirce

  • A pragmatist who believed science advances through induction, deduction, and abduction.
  • Abduction is an explanatory process where conclusions don't necessarily follow from premises.
  • Emphasized reasoning that generates hypotheses to explain observations.

Post-Positivism

  • Acknowledges limitations in positivism, recognising that scientific findings may not have a direct correspondence with reality.
  • Focuses on the limitations of positivism.

Karl Popper

  • Proposed disconfirmation as a solution to the problem of induction (no observation can establish a universal truth).
  • Argued for conditional truth claims and conjectures, which are tested until found wrong
  • Emphasised the importance of falsifiability in scientific theories.
  • Discussed the nature of conjectures and refutations in the context of scientific theories

Willard Quine

  • Argued that the scientific method is theory-laden, meaning observations are influenced by existing theories.
  • Observations are not independent; they are impacted by the theory being studied.
  • The dependency of observations on theory can alter conclusions about a theory.

Thomas Kuhn

  • Explored scientific paradigms (networks of interconnected statements influencing how science operates).
  • Distinguished between normal science (where paradigms are unchallenged) and scientific revolutions (where paradigms are challenged and replaced).
  • Scientific revolutions occur because a new paradigm better explains anomalies in the old paradigm.
  • Discussed the importance of anomalies and paradigms in scientific progress.

Imre Lakatos

  • Expanded on Kuhn's work, proposing falsifiability within research paradigms.
  • Distinguished between the core tenets of a research paradigm and auxiliary hypotheses (conjectures derived from the core).
  • Argues that scientific progress is through development of research programs.
  • Pointed out the distinction between rejecting a theory and rejecting the theory (or observation methods)

Science as Post-Positivism

  • Knowledge is reconstructive, modifying previous knowledge rather than simply adding to it.
  • Emphasises the importance of recognising that knowledge is influenced by time, context, and competing evidence
  • The process of science involves different methods of knowing and interpretation

Scientific Values (Kuhn/Khunian)

  • Knowledge should be coherent and consistent with existing theories and evidence.
  • Order should be incorporated to make sense of observations and phenomena.
  • Findings should align with existing evidence and knowledge, extending existing theories.
  • Focus on the value of generating novel and applicable knowledge in practice.

Merton/Mertonian values

  • Originality: New findings should be presented
  • Universalism- criteria used to judge scientific ideas should be the same across everyone.
  • Communalism- knowledge is a shared resource to judge ideas.
  • Disinterestedness- scientists should be detached from their biases.
  • Skepticism- scientists should doubt everything.

Psychology as a science

  • Questions whether psychology fits the frameworks provided by Popper and Kuhn.
  • Explores alternatives to positivism (e.g. constructivism), focusing on individual interpretation of phenomena.
  • Challenges the assumption that data is independent from the theory that guides it.

Social Constructionism

  • Challenges the idea of objective truth, suggesting that reality is constructed through social interactions.
  • Focuses on the meanings individuals give to their actions and phenomena in their environments, rather than on an objective reality.

Interpretivism

  • Emphasises that behaviour is more than just external stimuli; it is influenced by internal factors (mind, mental life).
  • Focuses on individual and subjective ways of understanding the world.

Feminist Approach

  • Stems from the lack of women in traditional academic settings.
  • Challenges traditional knowledge by including diverse viewpoints.
  • Advocates for more nuanced, context-specific, and ethically aware methods of knowing.
  • Draws attention to the social impact/constructions of knowledge, particularly gender, culture, and history.

Applied Psychology

  • Often employs a case study approach.
  • Focuses on understanding individual subjective experiences in a context without necessarily generalising to broader populations.

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