Philosophy of Mind Quiz

Key Philosophical Perspectives on the Mind-Brain Relationship

• Dualism: Descartes' philosophy positing the mind as separate from the physical body.
• Monism: A philosophical viewpoint asserting the mind is a function of the brain.
• Biological Psychology/Behavioral Science: Focuses on the interplay between nervous system structure/activity and behavior/mental processes. Biological factors often influence cognition and behavior.
• Aristotle's Error: Aristotle mistakenly believed the heart, not the brain, was the source of mental activity.

Historical Approaches to Brain Function

• Phrenology: An incorrect belief that skull bumps indicated personality traits and abilities. Despite being wrong about exact localization, phrenologists were correct in the general notion that certain brain regions relate to specific behaviors. The brain was believed to work like a muscle, growing with use.
• Reductionism: Explanation of complex phenomena as sums of simpler parts.
• P.W. Anderson's Critique: Large collections of simple things don't always behave predictably like their isolated components. New principles and perspectives emerge as complexity increases. Psychology is not simply applied biology.

Studying the Nervous System

• Neuron Doctrine: The nervous system is composed of discrete cells (neurons), developed by Santiago Cajal, building on Golgi's staining techniques.
• John Hughlings Jackson: Neurological research highlighted the hierarchical organization of the nervous system, where more complex functions are managed by more recently evolved regions.
• Spatial Resolution & Temporal Resolution: Crucial in brain imaging.
• Electroencephalography (EEG): Measures timing of brain activity. Used to evaluate arousal states.
• Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): Measures brain activity by detecting blood flow changes. Identifies active brain regions during tasks. Lower temporal resolution than EEG due to the time delay in blood flow response.
• Histology: Microscopic investigation of nervous system structure-behavior relationships.
• Skin Conductance Response/Galvanic Skin Response: Measures skin conductivity changes. Assesses arousal levels.
• Event-Related Potential (ERP): Averaging EEG responses to stimuli reveals stimulus perception.
• Single Cell Recording: Measures activity of single neurons using implanted electrodes. Identifies stimulation effects.
• Magnetoencephalography (MEG): Measures the magnetic output of the brain to identify active regions and their response timing.
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Tracks the accumulation of radioactive glucose/oxygen to illuminate brain activity during tasks.

Brain Structures and Functions

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord, encased in bone.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the CNS.
• Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movement and senses. Involves afferent/efferent pathways (sensory/motor).
• Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary bodily functions.
  • Sympathetic: Prepares the body for action ("fight or flight").
  • Parasympathetic: Calms the body ("rest and digest").
• Neurons: Specialized cells for sending/receiving signals (electrical/chemical). Three types: Sensory (afferent), Motor (efferent), Interneurons.
• Cell Body: Neuron's core; houses nucleus and crucial metabolic processes.
• Axons: Transmit signals away from the cell body.
• Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
• Synaptic Vesicles: Hold neurotransmitters.
• Glial Cells: Support cells in the nervous system. Myelin formation crucial for faster signal transmission. CNS glia form scar tissue, inhibiting repair, while PNS glia promote axon regeneration.
• Action Potential: Electrical signal traveling down axons. "All-or-none" principle governs firing. Propagation details include myelinated and unmyelinated axons and the Nodes of Ranvier.
• Synapse: Gap between neurons for chemical communication. Neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) cross the synapse to affect postsynaptic neuron activity.
• Important Neurotransmitters: Glutamate (excitatory), GABA (inhibitory), Serotonin (mood/impulse), Dopamine (reward/movement), Acetylcholine (movement/memory), Norepinephrine & Epinephrine (stress response).

Neurotransmitters, Drugs, and Learning

• Neurogenesis: Neuron creation—important in brain plasticity and adaptation.
• Reuptake: Recycling neurotransmitters by the axon terminal.
• Neuroplasticity: Ability of neurons to change in response to environmental factors.
• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Strengthened neuron communication, related to learning and memory.
• Agonists/Antagonists: Drugs that enhance/inhibit neurotransmitter activity.
• Summation: Integration of signals to determine neuron firing.
• Spatial and temporal summation: adding up multiple signals.

Divisions of the Brain

• Brainstem: Controls basic life-sustaining functions (breathing, heartbeat, etc.) – medulla, pons, midbrain.
• Reticular Formation: Arousal and alertness control.
• Basal Ganglia: Movement control. Substructures include caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, nucleus accumbens.
• Diencephalon: Thalamus—sensory relay station—and Hypothalamus—master regulator of homeostasis and endocrine system. Hypothalamus controls 4Fs – Fight/Flight, Feeding, Fornication/Reproduction.
• Cerebellum: Motor coordination and balance.
• Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of the brain (four lobes): Occipital (vision), Temporal (hearing), Parietal (touch), and Frontal (planning, movement, executive functions). Includes Broca's area (speech production) Prefrontal cortex (executive functions).

Additional Concepts

• Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Cushions brain/spinal cord.
• Endocrine System: Hormone-based communication system interacting with nervous system.
• Spinal nerves: 31 pairs serve the body (31 spinal nerves)
• Pineal gland: Releases melatonin, impacting sleep-wake cycles.
• Pituitary gland: "Master gland," controlled by the hypothalamus.
• Thyroid gland: Regulates metabolism.
• Adrenal glands: Release stress hormones, etc.
• Islets of Langerhans: Endocrine cells in pancreas, releasing hormones like insulin.
• Hemispheric specialization: Left vs right brain function.
• Corpus Callosum: Connects the two brain hemispheres.
• Cultural Neuroscience: Field studying how culture shapes behavior and brain activity.

Conditions and Techniques

• Synesthesia: A sensory mingling condition.
• Lesions: Brain damage, either natural or intentional. Used to understand behavior-brain relationships.
• Optogenetics: Using light to control genetically modified neurons in the brain. Specifically targets cell types.
• Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Uses magnetic fields to stimulate the brain. Can induce behavior changes, allowing researchers to assess the role of particular brain regions in specific behaviors.