Philosophy of Free Will and Consciousness
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Questions and Answers

What are the three main positions on free will?

  • Determinism, Libertarianism, Compatibilism (correct)
  • Compatibilism, Determinism, Existentialism
  • Libertarianism, Dualism, Existentialism
  • Naturalism, Dualism, Free Will

What is the definition of Libertarianism in terms of free will?

We are free to act in ways other than we actually do.

What is the definition of Determinism in terms of free will?

Everything flows from cause and effect sequences (Environment + Biology)

What is the definition of Compatibilism in terms of free will?

<p>Determinism does not rule out free will</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the meaning of "Subjective Measures Problem" when discussing introspection?

<p>Introspection is biased towards certain beliefs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these are types of physicalism?

<p>Behaviorism, Identity Theory, Computational Theory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of Behaviorism?

<p>Behavior &amp; Environment focus</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of Identity Theory?

<p>Brain Focus</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of Computational Theory?

<p>Information processing focus</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Hypothesis Testing, hypotheses can be confirmed but cannot be falsified.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Scientific theories must be specified such that they can be falsified.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The general public widely views the Recovered Memory Controversy as fact.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of Repressed Memory (RpM)?

<p>Completely out of your mind.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of Recovered Memory (RcM)?

<p>An individual can have a repressed memory come back into their conscious mind.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Freudian 'Repression' considered to be in terms of defense mechanisms?

<p>Special mechanism for forgetting</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is NOT one of the three types of memory in the Modal Model of Memory?

<p>Episodic Memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main types of LTM Lapses?

<p>Forgetting &amp; Retrieval Failure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of Forgetting in terms of LTM Lapses?

<p>Not available; transience/decay.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of Failure to Retrieve in terms of LTM Lapses?

<p>Blocking - tip of the tongue experience, retrieval cues missing (but it's available), no special mechanism</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some examples of "Real-World relevant data" regarding the Recovered Memory Controversy? (Select all that apply)

<p>Several cases of RcMs verified as false (A), False Memories (B), Verified cases of forgotten abuse (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are possible explanations for "Verified Cases of Forgotten Abuse"? (Select all that apply)

<p>Repression (A), Transience (memory decay) (C), Person does not want to talk about it (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of False Memories?

<p>memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something</p> Signup and view all the answers

Relevant Lab Data has shown that memories are "constructions".

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Relevant Lab Data has shown that approximately 20% of people are susceptible to memory implantation.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main takeaway regarding Eye-Witness Testimony and its implications to memory fallibility?

<p>Eye witness testimony is not very helpful</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of "Reinterpreted Memories?"

<p>via supplied retrieval cues that aided recall of a real episode</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of the "Forget-it-all-along effect?"

<p>The claim that various biases sometimes cause individuals to overestimate the degree to which they had previously forgotten an experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between Statistical Significance and Effect Size?

<p>Statistical Significance does not necessitate any &quot;meaningful&quot; differences for every-day practical considerations, while Effect Size gets at that issue (Cohen's d)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three possible explanations for "Explaining Biological Sex Differences?"

<p>Bias, Socio-Cultural Forces (Nurture), Biological Factors (Nature) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

It is not uncommon to see the view that "Biology = 0" when considering sex differences.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following cognitive abilities are girls typically better at? (Select all that apply)

<p>Face Perception Skill (A), Math Grades (B), School Performance (C), Verbal Fluency (D), Reading and Writing (E), Science Grades (F), Perceptual Speed (G), Memory Measures (H), Calculation (I)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is an example of an Achievement Measure?

<p>ACT (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is an example of an Aptitude Measure?

<p>GRE (A), LSAT (B), MCAT (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Studies have shown that there is a clear difference in cognitive ability or interests (e.g., interest in math & science) between males and females.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Natural experiments help to demonstrate the influence of biology in sex differences.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The "John-Joan Case" (David Reimer) provides evidence for the significant impact of early socialization.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If Biology is a factor in sex differences, what is expected in research? (Select all that apply)

<p>Plausible biological mechanisms (A), Universality in data patterns (B), Stability over time in data patterns (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are brain structural differences between males and females? (Select all that apply)

<p>Males have a higher % of white matter and proportionately less grey matter. (A), Males have greater laterization. (B), Females have a larger corpus callosum. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The London Cab Study demonstrates that experience shapes brain differences.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A key limitation of looking for early differences in sex is that biological processes operate on time-lines.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one known example of a hormonal influence on sex differences?

<p>Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are possible explanations for the dramatic discrepancies between the number of men and women at the elite university math and science departments? (Select all that apply)

<p>Difference in Male vs Female variability (A), Statistical properties of small effect size differences on tail-end comparisons (B), Differences in personal values / preferences (C), Bias (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are levels of explanation or analysis used to understand human behavior? (Select all that apply)

<p>Person/Psychological Level (A), Brain/Biological Level (B), Group/Social Level (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are two intellectual tools discussed?

<p>Bayesian Reasoning, Expected Utility / Rational Choice Theory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a Baserate (prior probability) in Bayesian Reasoning?

<p>Baserates (prior probability)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Baserate Neglect refer to in Bayesian Reasoning?

<p>Baserate Neglect</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main concept of Expected Utility / Rational Choice Theory?

<p>Utility can be subjective</p> Signup and view all the answers

Belief Bias refers to evaluating the strength/validity of a conclusion based on the believability of the conclusion.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Actively Open-Minded Thinking predicts belief change.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the four components of Critical Thinking / Rationality? (Select all that apply)

<p>Mindware/Intellectual Tools (A), Content Knowledge (domain specific knowledge) (B), Thinking Dispositions (Thinking Styles/Cognitive Styles) (C), Cognitive Ability (g/intelligence) (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is NOT a type of Bias, as described in this content?

<p>Cognitive Bias (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between the folk usage of bias and the descriptive usage?

<p>Folk Usage: &quot;common sense&quot;; Descriptive usage: simply describing a bias, not necessarily bad or good</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of "Myside Bias?"

<p>Searching, Processing or interpretting evidence in a manner that favors the belief we desire to be true</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of "Belief Change?"

<p>Actively Open-Minded Thinking predicts belief change</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Determinism

Everything is predetermined by cause and effect sequences, influenced by environment and biology. Think of it as a chain reaction - one event leads to the next, and so on.

Libertarianism

We have complete freedom of choice. We can choose any action, regardless of our past or present circumstances.

Compatibilism

Both free will and determinism coexist. Freedom is compatible with being predetermined.

Reasons to believe in free will

Intuition and our subjective experience tell us we exercise free will. We feel a distinct correlation between our conscious decisions and our actions.

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Limitations of introspection

Our own subjective experience, while powerful, can be unreliable. It's prone to biases and inaccuracies.

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Behaviorism

Focuses on the interplay between behavior and environment. Think of it as a loop: Environment impacts behavior, and behavior impacts environment.

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Identity Theory

Mental states are directly equivalent to brain states - think of one-to-one mapping. For example, you experience sadness (mental state) because your brain is in a specific state.

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Computational Theory

Focuses on the function rather than the specific physical structure of the brain. The same mental process can be achieved in different ways.

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Hypothesis Testing

Testing hypotheses involves confirmation and falsification. A hypothesis can be falsified (proven wrong) but NOT confirmed (proven right).

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Falsification and Scientific Theories

Scientific theories require rigorous testing - they must be stated in a way that allows them to be proven wrong.

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The Memory Wars

A debate about repressed memories. The general public often accepts belief in repressed memories, but research shows it's complex and not always true.

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Repressed Memory (RpM)

A memory that is believed to be completely forgotten, often thought to be due to trauma.

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Recovered Memory (RcM)

A repressed memory is brought back into conscious awareness, often with the help of therapy or other triggers.

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Freudian Defense Mechanisms

Psychological strategies used to protect oneself from anxiety. Repression is a defense mechanism where memories are pushed out of consciousness.

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Modal Model of Memory

Describes memory as a system with 3 levels: Sensory memory (brief initial storage of information), Working Memory (short-term, active processing), Long-term Memory (permanent storage).

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LTM Lapses

When information stored in long-term memory is no longer accessible, either due to forgetting or unsuccessful retrieval.

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Forgetting (Transience / Decay)

Memories fade over time, like a photograph left in the sun.

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Failure to Retrieve

Memory is available (stored) but cannot be accessed. For example, you know you know the answer but can't quite remember it.

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Real-world relevant data on repressed memories

There are verified cases of forgotten abuse, but there are also cases of false memories that were suggested by therapists or others.

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Recovered Memories (Possible Explanations)

Explanations for recovered memories include: Repression (pushed out of consciousness) or False Memory (created through suggestion).

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Verified Cases of Forgotten Abuse (Possible Explanations)

Possible explanations for verified cases of forgotten abuse include: repression, avoidance of the topic, or natural memory decay.

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False Memories

Memories for events that never occurred. They can be implanted through suggestion, leading questions, or imagining.

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Relevant Lab Data on Memory

Laboratory studies show that memories are constructed and can be influenced by suggestion or other factors.

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Eye-Witness Testimony and Memory Fallibility

Eye witness testimony is often unreliable as memories can be inaccurate and influenced by suggestion.

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Reinterpreted Memories

Existing memories can be reinterpreted based on new information or retrieval cues.

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Forget-it-all-along effect

The tendency to overestimate how much you previously forgot, often due to biases.

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Statistical Significance vs. Effect Size

Statistical significance tells us if an effect is likely real, but it doesn't tell us how big the effect is. Effect size (Cohen's d) measures the size of the effect.

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Explaining Biological Sex Differences

Biological sex differences can be explained by a combination of bias, socio-cultural forces, and biological factors.

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Differences in 'measured' cognitive abilities between biological males and females

On average, females tend to outperform on tasks like calculation, perceptual speed, memory, verbal fluency, face perception, and school performance. Males tend to outperform on verbal analogies, visual-spatial reasoning, and math aptitude measures.

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Achievement Measures vs. Aptitude Measures

Achievement measures assess what you've learned (e.g., ACT), while aptitude measures predict your potential in a specific area (e.g., MCAT).

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Differences in Cognitive Ability or Interests?

Some studies show that while there are differences in cognitive abilities between males and females, differences in interests may also play a role in career choices.

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Natural Experiments: Biological males raised as females

Cases like those of individuals with cloacal extrophy (born with ambiguous genitalia) or the John/Joan case (Dr. Money & David Reimer, a child raised as a female despite being biologically male) provide valuable insights into the influence of biology vs. environment.

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If Biology > 0 what should be expected?

If biological factors have influence, we should expect some degree of universality (patterns across cultures) and stability (consistent findings across different populations over time). Also, there should be plausible biological mechanisms.

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Brain Structure Differences?

Some studies indicate that male brains tend to have a higher percentage of white matter and less grey matter, with greater lateralization (differences between hemispheres). Female brains tend to have a larger corpus callosum (structure connecting hemispheres).

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Nature via Nurture complication (London Cab Study)

The London Cab Study demonstrates that extensive training can lead to significant changes in brain structure. This highlights the impact of experience even on biological structures.

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Limitations of looking for early differences

Biological processes unfold over time. Just because we don't see a difference at an early stage doesn't mean it won't emerge later.

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Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

A condition where females experience excess prenatal exposure to androgens (male hormones). This can lead to increased masculine toy preferences, more competitive play behavior, and decreased verbal ability.

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How to explain dramatic discrepancies between M/F at the ELITE university Math & Science Departments?

Several explanations exist for the gender gap in elite math and science fields: Bias, differences in personal values and preferences, the statistical impact of small effect sizes, and differences in male and female variability.

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Levels of Explanation / Analysis (Biopsychosocial Model)

Understanding complex phenomena like sex differences requires considering multiple levels of analysis: the group/social level, the person/psychological level, and the brain/biological level.

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Bayesian Reasoning

A way of reasoning through updating beliefs based on evidence. It involves baserates (prior probabilities), which are often overlooked (baserate neglect).

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Expected Utility / Rational Choice Theory

A way of making decisions by calculating the utility (value) of each option and considering the probability of achieving it. Utility can be subjective.

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Folk usage vs. descriptive usage of Bias

Folk usage implies that a bias is negative or misleading. Descriptive usage simply describes the presence of bias, without judgment.

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Motivated Bias

Our desires influence how we reason. We tend to look for evidence that supports our preferred belief.

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Myside Bias

Seeking, processing, or interpreting evidence in a way that favors our existing belief.

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Belief Bias

Evaluating a conclusion based on its believability, rather than its logical validity.

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Belief Change

A process of actively open-minded thinking is strongly associated with changing beliefs.

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A Summation of Critical Thinking / Rationality

Critical thinking is a complex process that involves cognitive ability ( intelligence), thinking dispositions (mindsets), intellectual tools (reasoning strategies), and content knowledge (specific domain expertise).

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Study Notes

Positions on Free Will

  • Determinism: All events, including human actions, are causally determined by prior events. Environment and biology are crucial causative factors.
  • Libertarianism: Humans have free will; they can choose to act differently than they actually do.
  • Compatibilism: Determinism and free will can coexist.

Introspection and Free Will

  • Introspection: Subjective experience suggests a correlation between conscious will and behavior.
  • Limitations of Introspection: Subjective experiences can be prone to biases.

Physicalism: Different Perspectives

  • Behaviorism: Focus on behavior and the environment's influence.
  • Identity Theory: Mental processes are identical to specific brain processes. A mental state is a brain state.
  • Computational Theory: Function is key, not specific structure. The same mental processes can be performed differently.

Hypothesis Testing

  • Confirmation/Positive Test Strategy: Searching for evidence supporting a hypothesis.
  • Falsification/Negative Test Strategy: Looking for evidence that disproves a hypothesis. Scientific theories must be falsifiable.

Memory Wars: Repressed and Recovered Memories

  • Repressed Memory (RpM): A memory completely out of conscious awareness.
  • Recovered Memory (RcM): A repressed memory surfacing back into consciousness.

LTM - Forgetting and Retrieval Failures

  • Forgetting (Transience/Decay): Loss of memory over time.
  • Failure to Retrieve: Inability to access stored information.
  • Blocking: Difficulty retrieving a piece of information (tip-of-the-tongue).
  • Retrieval Cues: Missing cues can impede retrieval.

False Memories

  • False Memories: Memories for events that did not happen, often influenced by suggestions.
  • Verification Challenges: Real forgotten abuse cases, verified false RcMs, and susceptibility to memory implantation.

Eye-Witness Testimony

  • Memory Fallibility: Eyewitness accounts are often unreliable.

Bio/Sex Differences

  • Potential Factors: Biological, sociocultural, and biases influence observed differences.
  • Differences in Cognitive Skills: Girls often outperform boys in calculation, perceptual speed, memory tasks, verbal fluency, face perception, reading/writing, and school performance (math and science). Boys may exhibit traits stronger in verbal analogies, visual-spatial reasoning, and aptitude for math.
  • Nature/Nurture: Both nature and nurture interact, as seen in the London Cab Driver study's hippocampus enlargement, related to extensive training.
  • Brain Structure: Males: higher proportion of white matter, less grey matter, greater laterization. Females: larger corpus callosum (the neural connection between hemispheres).

Rationality and Decision Making

  • Bayesian Reasoning: Understanding prior probabilities and evidence. Baserates (prior probability) as a tool for evaluating information.
  • Expected Utility/Rational Choice Theory: Subjective utilities and probabilities influence decision making.

Cognitive Biases

  • Belief Bias: Assessing conclusion validity based on personal beliefs.
  • Myside Bias: Interpreting evidence to support desired beliefs.
  • Motivated Bias: Desires influencing reasoning.

Critical Thinking Components

  • Cognitive Ability (g/intelligence): Overall cognitive capacity.
  • Thinking Dispositions (Cognitive Styles): Individual approaches to thinking.
  • Mindware/Intellectual Tools: Fundamental reasoning techniques.
  • Content Knowledge: Domain-specific expertise.

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Explore key concepts surrounding free will, including determinism, libertarianism, and compatibilism. Delve into the nature of introspection, physicalism, and hypothesis testing in relation to human behavior. This quiz will test your understanding of these philosophical ideas and their implications.

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