UNIT 2 - Chapter 6 - Short Answers Study

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Questions and Answers

What happens to the mind when it entertains unclear ideas or is overwhelmed by passion?

It feels weak and vulnerable, and experiences pain and confusion because it lacks clarity.

What is the highest pleasure, according to Spinoza?

Understanding the laws of nature, which is equivalent to understanding God.

How does Spinoza distinguish between emotions and passions?

Emotions are linked to specific thoughts, while passions are not associated with any particular thought.

What is notable about Spinoza's treatment of human emotions?

He was the first to treat human emotions in great detail, listing 24 emotions that involve pleasure or pain. Signup and view all the answers

According to Spinoza, what is the relationship between God and nature?

Spinoza equates God with nature. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Spinoza's deterministic view of man?

It requires that there be laws of nature applicable to man, and that both mind and body are subject to natural law. Signup and view all the answers

What is the similarity between Spinoza's philosophy and psychoanalytic thinking?

Both emphasize the importance of making unclear thoughts clear and controlling passions with the rational mind. Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of Spinoza's solution to the mind-body problem?

Double aspectism. Signup and view all the answers

What is the most pleasurable life, according to Spinoza?

A life lived in accordance with the laws of nature. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of understanding the laws of nature, according to Spinoza?

To understand the laws of nature is to understand God. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of reason in emotional experience, according to Spinoza?

Reason controls desirable emotional experiences. Signup and view all the answers

What is the central idea of Spinoza's deterministic view of human cognition and behavior?

Human thoughts and behavior are determined and lawful. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of 'clear ideas' in Spinoza's philosophy?

Clear ideas are conducive to the mind's survival and reflect an understanding of causal necessity. Signup and view all the answers

What is the closest we can get to freedom, according to Spinoza?

Understanding what causes our behavior and thoughts. Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental nature of differences among all things in the universe, according to Leibniz?

Quantitative, not qualitative. Signup and view all the answers

What is the driving force behind the development of a monad?

The desire to clarify thoughts and actualize potential. Signup and view all the answers

What is the unique characteristic of humans in terms of thinking, according to Leibniz?

Humans possess the monads capable of the clearest thinking, next to God. Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept that Leibniz proposed as an alternative to interactionism and occasionalism?

Psychophysical parallelism based on preestablished harmony. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term Leibniz used to describe perceptions that occur below the level of awareness?

Petites perceptions (little perceptions). Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept that Leibniz introduced into psychology, related to the threshold of conscious awareness?

Limen (threshold). Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Leibniz's concept of unconscious perception in the development of psychoanalysis?

It anticipates the idea of the unconscious mind, a central concept in psychoanalysis. Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of Leibniz's concept of hierarchy of consciousness for the study of animals?

It encourages the study of consciousness in animals. Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental unit of the universe according to Leibniz's philosophy?

monads Signup and view all the answers

What happens when enough minute monads are experienced at the same time?

apperception occurs Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between Leibniz's and Locke's view on the mind?

Leibniz believed the mind is active, while Locke believed it was passive Signup and view all the answers

What is Leibniz's view on the origin of ideas?

No ideas come from experience Signup and view all the answers

What is the hierarchy of nature in Leibniz's philosophy?

A scale of gradually increasing intelligence, from monads to God Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of petites perceptions in Leibniz's philosophy?

They are unconscious experiences Signup and view all the answers

How does Leibniz's view on the mind differ from his understanding of Locke's view?

Leibniz believed the mind is not a blank tablet, but rather an active entity Signup and view all the answers

What is the nature of the universe according to Leibniz's philosophy?

It is the best of all possible worlds, created by God Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary assumption behind Thomas Reid's commonsense philosophy?

That we can assume the existence of the physical world and of human reasoning powers because it makes common sense to do so. Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the philosophical position that holds that sensory experience represents physical reality exactly as it is?

Direct realism, also called naive realism. Signup and view all the answers

According to Reid, how do we perceive the world?

We perceive the world directly in terms of meaningful units, not as isolated sensations that are then combined via associative principles. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the aspects of the mind that actually exist and influence human behavior and thought, according to Reid?

Faculties Signup and view all the answers

How many faculties of the mind did Reid identify?

43 Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of 'common sense' in Reid's philosophy?

It is the foundation for trusting our sensory impressions and assuming the existence of the physical world. Signup and view all the answers

What is the criticism that Reid levels against those who doubt the existence of the physical world?

Metaphysical lunacy Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the faculties of the mind, according to Reid?

They are innate and function in cooperation with other faculties. Signup and view all the answers

What did Immanuel Kant believe was the source of our understanding of concepts such as unity, causation, time, and space?

Innate categories of thought Signup and view all the answers

According to Kant, what is the role of the mind in shaping our experience of the world?

The mind creates the universe as we experience it Signup and view all the answers

What is the categorical imperative, according to Kant?

A moral directive that we should always act in such a way that the maxims governing our moral decisions could be used as a guide for everyone else’s moral behavior Signup and view all the answers

How did Kant's view of innate categories of thought differ from Descartes' view of innate ideas?

Kant proposed innate categories of thought that organize all sensory experience, whereas Descartes proposed specific innate ideas Signup and view all the answers

What was Kant's view on the nature of time and space?

They are innate categories of thought that provide the context for all mental phenomena Signup and view all the answers

What did Kant compare the categories of thought to in his analogy?

The preprinted pages in an address book Signup and view all the answers

How did Kant's philosophy combine sensory experience and innate faculties?

Through his rationalism, which combined both sensory experience and innate faculties Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Kant's concept of innate categories of thought in psychology?

It has had a considerable influence on psychology, particularly in areas such as perception, language, cognitive development, and problem solving Signup and view all the answers

What did Kant believe was the result of elevating the maxim 'lying under certain circumstances is justified' to a universal moral law?

Widespread distrust and social disorganization Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the mind and the universe, according to Kant?

The mind creates the universe as we experience it Signup and view all the answers

How does Kant define psychology, and what does he believe is possible to study?

Kant defines psychology as the introspective analysis of the mind, and he believes that such a psychology could not be a science. However, he thinks that studying how people actually behave (anthropology) could yield useful information. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Absolute, according to Hegel?

The Absolute is the interrelated unity of the universe, which is the ultimate goal of human history and the human intellect. Signup and view all the answers

What is the dialectic process, according to Hegel?

The dialectic process is a process involving an original idea, the negation of the original idea, and a synthesis of the original idea and its negation. Signup and view all the answers

How does Hegel view the relationship between the individual and the state?

Hegel believes that the relationship between the individual and the state is analogous to that of the eye to the body, where the individual is part of a valuable whole. Signup and view all the answers

What is Herbart's contribution to psychology?

Herbart is considered one of the first mathematical and educational psychologists, and he believed that the activities of the mind could be expressed mathematically, making psychology a science. Signup and view all the answers

How does Herbart view ideas?

Herbart likens ideas to Leibniz's monads, saying that they have energy and a consciousness of their own and strive for consciousness. Signup and view all the answers

How does Hegel influence Fechner and the development of experimental psychology?

Hegel's philosophy influences Fechner, leading to the development of psychophysics and the birth of experimental psychology. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Hegel's philosophy in the development of Gestalt psychology?

Hegel's philosophy has influenced the development of Gestalt psychology, which is a phenomenological tradition. Signup and view all the answers

How does Freud's early consideration of the human will relate to Hegel?

Freud's early consideration of the human will was explicitly Hegelian, and some see Freud's concepts of the id, ego, and superego as a manifestation of the dialectic process. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Hegel's philosophy in self-actualization theory?

Hegel's philosophy has influenced self-actualization theory, as seen in Rogers and Maslow, as well as in those opposing romantics and existentialists. Signup and view all the answers

Why did Herbart deny that psychology could become an experimental science?

Because he believed that experimentation necessitated dividing up its subject matter, and the mind acted as an integrated whole, which could not be fractionated. Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept of psychic mechanics, as described by Herbart?

The idea that ideas have the power to either attract or repel other ideas, depending on their compatibility. Signup and view all the answers

What is the apperceptive mass, according to Herbart?

A group of compatible ideas that gather in consciousness and compete with each other for attention. Signup and view all the answers

What advice did Herbart offer to teachers regarding the presentation of new material?

Review the material that has already been learned, prepare the student for new material, present the new material, relate it to what has already been learned, and show applications of the new material. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Herbart's concept of limen in the development of psychology?

It was crucial to Gustav Fechner's psychophysics, which contributed to the development of psychology as a true science. Signup and view all the answers

How does Herbart's view of ideas differ from that of the empiricists?

Herbart believed that ideas have a life of their own, with energy and consciousness, whereas empiricists saw ideas as passively buffeted by external forces. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Herbart's mathematical approach to psychology?

It gave psychology more status and respectability, and encouraged the development of experimental psychology. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between an idea and the apperceptive mass, according to Herbart?

An idea outside the apperceptive mass will be allowed to enter if it is compatible with the existing ideas, but if it is not compatible, the ideas in the apperceptive mass will mobilize their energy to prevent it from entering. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Herbart's work in the development of educational psychology?

He applied his theory to education, offering advice on how to present new material to students, considering their existing apperceptive mass. Signup and view all the answers

What is the similarity between Herbart's concept of ideas and Leibniz's concept of monads?

Both ideas and monads are seen as having a life of their own, with energy and consciousness. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Baruch Spinoza's Philosophy

Equated God with nature, believing that everything in nature, including humans, consists of both matter and consciousness.
Proposed solution to the mind-body problem is called double aspectism, where the mind and body are like two sides of a coin, inseparable and influencing each other.

Understanding of Human Cognition and Emotions

Held a deterministic view of human cognition, activity, and emotion, facilitating the development of scientific psychology.
Believed that emotional experience is desirable when controlled by reason, while passionate experience is undesirable because it is not controlled by reason.
Distinguished between emotions and passions, with emotions linked to specific thoughts and passions not associated with particular thoughts.

Emotions and Passions

Identified various emotions, including wonder, contempt, love, hatred, devotion, hope, fear, confidence, despair, joy, disappointment, pity, indignation, jealousy, envy, sympathy, humility, repentance, pride, honor, shame, regret, gratitude, revenge, cowardice, ambition, and lust.

View of Human Freedom and the Laws of Nature

Believed that humans are part of nature, and therefore, human thoughts and behavior are lawful and determined.
Insisted that the best life is one lived with a knowledge of the causes of things, and that understanding the laws of nature is key to freedom.
Thought that the highest pleasure comes from understanding the laws of nature, which is equivalent to understanding God.

Key Concepts and Influences

Embraced pantheism, believing that God is present everywhere and in everything.
Eliminated the distinction between the sacred and the secular by equating God and nature.
Denied demons, revelation, and an anthropomorphic God.
Influenced the development of scientific psychology and psychoanalytic thinking.

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz's Philosophy

Leibniz believed that the universe consists of indivisible units called monads, which are the building blocks of the universe.
God created the arrangement of monads, making this the best of all possible worlds.
Leibniz attributed to Locke the belief that the mind is a tabula rasa (blank tablet), but disagreed, saying the mind is not passive, but active.

Monads and Consciousness

Monads are life units, like living atoms, and all monads are active and conscious.
There is a hierarchy in nature, with monads varying in clarity and distinctiveness of thoughts, making them differ in intelligence.
Inert matter is made up of monads incapable of clear thoughts, while plants, animals, and humans have increasingly clear thoughts.

Purpose and Development

Each monad seeks to clarify its thoughts, causing pleasure, and has a final cause or purpose.
Monads can only change through internal development, actualizing their potential.
Humans possess the monads capable of the clearest thinking, next to God.

Rejection of Dualism and Parallelism

Leibniz rejected mind-body dualism, interactionism, and occasionalism.
He proposed a psychophysical parallelism based on preestablished harmony, where mental and physical events are separate but synchronized.

Continuity and Perception

The law of continuity states that there are no major gaps in nature, only small gradations.
Leibniz introduced the concept of petites perceptions (little perceptions) that occur below awareness.
Accumulated petites perceptions lead to conscious awareness, or apperception.

Unconscious Mind and Threshold

Leibniz proposed the concept of an unconscious mind, where experiences below the limen (threshold) remain unconscious.
Above the threshold, experiences become conscious.
This idea influenced the development of psychoanalysis.

Thomas Reid

Believed that our sensory impressions accurately reflect physical reality because it makes common sense to do so
Attributed several rational faculties to the mind, making him a faculty psychologist
Advocated for commonsense philosophy, which assumes the existence of the physical world and human reasoning powers because it makes sense to do so
Trusted eyewitness testimony in courts of law as a reason to trust our impressions of the physical world
Believed that we are naturally endowed with the abilities to deal with and make sense of the world

Direct Realism

The belief that sensory experience represents physical reality exactly as it is
Also known as naive realism
Reid did not believe that our conscious awareness of the world is formed by one sensation being added to another
Believed that we experience objects immediately as objects due to our innate power of perception

Faculties of the Mind

Believed that faculties were aspects of the mind that actually existed and influenced human behavior and thought
Thought that all faculties were innate and functioned in cooperation with other faculties
Listed 43 faculties of the mind, including abstraction, attention, consciousness, deliberation, generalization, imitation, judgment, memory, morality, perception, pity, and compassion

Immanuel Kant

Believed that experiences such as unity, causation, time, and space could not be derived from sensory experience and must be attributable to innate categories of thought
Believed that morality should be governed by the categorical imperative
Thought that psychology could not become a science because subjective experience could not be quantified mathematically
Believed that the mind must add something to sensory data before knowledge could be attained
Postulated innate categories of thought, such as unity, totality, time, space, cause and effect, reality, quantity, quality, negation, possibility-impossibility, and existence-nonexistence
Thought that our sensory impressions are always structured by the categories of thought, and our phenomenological experience is the result of the interaction between sensations and the categories of thought

Categorical Imperative

The moral directive that we should always act in such a way that the maxims governing our moral decisions could be used as a guide for everyone else’s moral behavior
Kant gave the example of the maxim "lying under certain circumstances is justified" and how it would lead to widespread distrust and social disorganization if made a universal moral law
Believed that if everyone made their moral decisions according to the categorical imperative, the result would be a community of free and equal members

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Believed the universe to be an interrelated unity, which he called the Absolute
Thought that human history and the human intellect progress via the dialectic process toward the Absolute
Believed that true knowledge can never be attained by examining isolated instances of anything unless those instances are related to the "whole"
Conceived the ethical relation of the citizen to the state as analogous to that of the eye to the body
Developed the concept of the dialectic process, involving an original idea, the negation of the original idea, and a synthesis of the original idea and its negation
Influenced Fechner and thereby the development of both psychophysics and the birth of experimental psychology

Johann Friedrich Herbart

Likened ideas to Leibniz’s monads by saying that they had energy and a consciousness of their own
Believed that ideas strive for consciousness and are given conscious expression if compatible with a person’s apperceptive mass
Thought that psychology could be a mathematical science, but not an experimental science
Opposed faculty psychology and believed that the activities of the mind could be expressed mathematically
Developed the concept of apperceptive mass, which is the group of compatible ideas that gather in consciousness and form a group
Applied his theory to education by offering advice to teachers on how to present new material to students
Considered one of the first mathematical and educational psychologists
Influenced Gustav Fechner and Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of psychology as a separate scientific discipline

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UNIT TWO - Chapter 6 - Short Answer Study