Philosophy: Metaphysics and Ethics Overview

Studies the nature of reality, existence, and the universe.
Key concepts:
- Ontology: Study of being and existence.
- Substance: What things are made of; their essential properties.
- Causality: Relationship between cause and effect.
- Time and Space: Nature of temporal and spatial existence.
Major questions:
- What is the nature of reality?
- Do abstract concepts exist independently of the physical world?

Examines moral values, principles, and theories of right and wrong.
Key branches:
- Normative Ethics: Establishes standards for right conduct (e.g., utilitarianism, deontology).
- Meta-Ethics: Explores the nature of moral judgments and language.
- Applied Ethics: Addresses specific moral issues (e.g., bioethics, environmental ethics).
Major theories:
- Consequentialism: Morality of actions judged by outcomes.
- Deontological Ethics: Morality based on rules and duties.
- Virtue Ethics: Focus on character and virtues rather than rules.

The study of knowledge, belief, and justification.
Key concepts:
- Justified True Belief: Traditional definition of knowledge.
- Skepticism: Doubt about the possibility of certain knowledge.
- Empiricism: Knowledge comes from sensory experience.
- Rationalism: Knowledge is primarily gained through reason.
Major questions:
- What is knowledge?
- How do we acquire knowledge?
- What justifies our beliefs?

The study of reasoning and argumentation.
Key components:
- Propositions: Statements that can be true or false.
- Arguments: Composed of premises leading to a conclusion.
- Validity and Soundness: Valid arguments have a correct structure; sound arguments are valid and have true premises.
Types:
- Deductive Logic: Conclusions necessarily follow from premises.
- Inductive Logic: Conclusions based on probability from premises.
- Formal Logic: Uses symbolic representations.
- Informal Logic: Focuses on everyday reasoning.

Explores questions about government, justice, rights, and ethics in political contexts.
Key concepts:
- Justice: What is fair and equitable in society?
- Authority: What legitimizes political power?
- Liberty: The nature and limits of freedom.
- Social Contract: Theoretical agreement among individuals to form a society.
Major theories:
- Liberalism: Emphasizes individual rights and freedoms.
- Marxism: Critiques capitalism and advocates for classless society.
- Utilitarianism: Advocates for policies that maximize overall happiness.
Major philosophers:
- Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Mill, Marx.

Focuses on the nature of reality, existence, and the universe.
Ontology examines being and existence, probing what it means for something to be.
Substance refers to the essential properties and components that constitute things.
Causality investigates the relationship between causes and effects across events.
Time and Space discusses their nature and implications for existence.
Key inquiries include the essence of reality and the independence of abstract concepts from the physical realm.

Addresses moral values, principles, and the differentiation between right and wrong.
Normative Ethics sets standards for ethical conduct, with theories like utilitarianism and deontology.
Meta-Ethics analyzes the nature of moral judgments, questioning their meaning and language.
Applied Ethics deals with specific moral dilemmas such as bioethics and environmental ethics.
Consequentialism assesses the morality of actions based on their outcomes.
Deontological Ethics focuses on adherence to rules and duties as the basis for morality.
Virtue Ethics emphasizes character traits and virtues over compliance with rules.

Explores the study of knowledge, belief, and how justification occurs.
The traditional definition of knowledge is Justified True Belief.
Skepticism challenges the certainty of knowledge, questioning what can be known.
Empiricism posits that knowledge stems primarily from sensory experiences.
Rationalism argues that reason is the main source of knowledge acquisition.
Central questions include the definition of knowledge, modes of acquisition, and justification of beliefs.

Investigates reasoning processes and the structure of arguments.
Propositions are declarative statements that are subject to truth evaluation.
Arguments consist of premises that support a conclusion, forming a logical connection.
Validity ensures that arguments have proper structure, whereas soundness guarantees validity combined with true premises.
Deductive Logic leads to conclusions that necessarily follow from stated premises.
Inductive Logic draws conclusions based on the likelihood derived from premises.
Formal Logic utilizes symbolic systems, while Informal Logic concerns itself with reasoning in everyday contexts.

Examines governmental structures, justice, rights, and ethical considerations in politics.
Definitions of Justice involve fairness and equity in societal organization.
Authority delves into the legitimacy and source of political power.
Liberty addresses the essence, scope, and restrictions on individual freedom.
The Social Contract represents a theoretical agreement among individuals to form societal governance.
Prominent theories include:
- Liberalism, which champions individual rights and personal freedoms.
- Marxism, critiquing capitalism and advocating for a class-free society.
- Utilitarianism, which promotes policies aimed at achieving the greatest happiness for the most people.
Notable philosophers in political thought include Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Mill, and Marx.