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What is the Human Being?

• The human being is a complex entity, studied by many sciences.
• Philosophical knowledge seeks to answer ultimate questions about existence, leading to the fourth question: What is the human being?

Positive Sciences

• These sciences utilize the experimental method, relying on observation and experience.

Natural Sciences

• Analyze humans from a material or physical perspective, focusing on their place in the biosphere.
• Include biology, paleontology, and paleoanthropology, studying humans from a biological and evolutionary perspective.

Human Sciences

• Study human action and behavior.
• Analyze the complex interaction between the material and the human freedom, using experiments to comprehend observable realities.
• Include psychology, sociology, economics, and cultural anthropology, studying the development of cultures through human action.

Philosophical Anthropology

• Aims to understand the human being in its entirety, emphasizing the "inner subject" responsible for actions and capable of understanding reality.
• Emphasize the importance of considering the non-observable and the need to go beyond mere experience.

The Role of Philosophical Anthropology

• Addresses the need for a comprehensive understanding of the human being and the reasons for its existence.
• Integrates knowledge from various disciplines to provide a complete view of the human being.
• Aims to determine humanity's place within the cosmos by recognizing both shared characteristics with other organisms and the unique features that distinguish us.
• Explores the meaning and purpose of human existence beyond biological or psychological factors.

Key Questions in Philosophical Anthropology

• What is the origin of humanity?
• What are the fundamental causes of human existence?
• What makes us human?
• What do we share in common with, and how do we differ from, other living beings?
• What is the relationship between the physical and spiritual dimensions of humankind?
• What is the connection between the mind and the brain?
• What are the goals and destiny of human life?

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

• Assumes that:
  • Offspring inherit characteristics from their parents, but with random variations.
  • Organisms best adapted to their environment have a higher chance of survival and reproduction.
  • Adapted traits are passed down through generations, leading to evolutionary change.
• Faced several criticisms:
  • Darwin's lack of knowledge of heredity.
  • Insufficient explanation of evolutionary processes.
  • Underestimation of the timescale required for evolution.
• While Darwin did not explicitly state that the laws of evolution apply to the human spirit, his argument for the continuity between humans and other animals sparked debates in scientific and philosophical-religious circles.

Evolution and Positive Sciences

• Evolutionary theories are constantly being challenged by new discoveries and scientific progress.
• None of the current theories can fully explain the processes of evolution.
• Natural selection explains the persistence or disappearance of variations but not their appearance.
• Mutations are considered random, but not completely accidental.
• The appearance of new species requires further explanation beyond just mutations.

Evolution, Philosophy, and Religion

• The origin of life and humans raises questions for different sciences and methodologies:
  • How: Mechanisms driving species transformation, the domain of positive sciences.
  • Why: The ultimate cause, the domain of philosophy.
  • For what: The ultimate meaning of life, the domain of religion.

Different Explanations of the Origin of Things

• Mechanistic explanation: Natural processes explained through material forces, but insufficient to explain new phenomena, like life itself.
• Explanation by chance: Origin of everything traced to random factors; a philosophical rather than scientific perspective.
• Teleological explanation: Recognizing order and purpose in nature, acknowledging the presence of plans, directions, and randomness within natural processes.

The Uniqueness of the Human Species

• Evolution is a complex interplay between biological evolution and social/cultural development.
• Hominization is the biological process that led to the Homo sapiens species within the hominid family.
• Key features of hominization include significantly increased brain size, modification of the pharynx and larynx, changes in facial structure, development of bipedalism, and special hands for tool use.

Cultural Origin of Humans: Humanization

• Humanization is the emergence of cultural traits that define humanity.
• Key elements of human culture include techniques, ethics, art, religion, and language.
• The simultaneous development of biological and cultural factors marks a significant turning point in the evolutionary process.

The Uniqueness of the Human Condition

• Human beings stand out from other species due to their ability to adapt their environment to their needs.
• This adaptation is fueled by the humanization process.
• While humans have remarkable capabilities (symbolization, desire for meaning, language), they also lack specialization, leading to complex challenges for adaptation.

A Material and Spiritual Being

• The human being is not just a physical entity, but also characterized by an inner dimension, referred to as the "spirit" or "spiritual soul".
• The concept of the soul is a philosophical concept, not just a religious one.
• The duality of soul and body must be understood as a very special composition, composing a unified being, which is the person.

Philosophical Responses to the Mind-Body Relationship

• Integrationism: Mind and body are interconnected and form a complete reality.
• Dualism: Mind and body are distinct substances existing simultaneously.
• Monism:
  • Materialism: Humans are purely material beings, and the mind emerges from the body's material interactions.
  • Spiritualism: Humans are purely spiritual beings, and all living things have a mind.

Critical Review

• The issue of whether the body contributes to human dignity depends on the philosophical stance.
• Dualism faces challenges explaining how the mind can be non-physical yet affect the body.
• Materialism could justify harm to the individual.
• The spiritual approach could discourage the development of the full person.