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Questions and Answers
What adjustment should be made for drug dosing in neonates and the elderly?
What adjustment should be made for drug dosing in neonates and the elderly?
Lower doses than adults should be administered.
How do male and female sex hormones differently affect hepatic microsomal enzyme activity?
How do male and female sex hormones differently affect hepatic microsomal enzyme activity?
Androgens act as HME inducers while estrogens and progesterone act as HME inhibitors.
Why should drug doses be adjusted for patients with liver diseases such as cirrhosis?
Why should drug doses be adjusted for patients with liver diseases such as cirrhosis?
Liver diseases markedly reduce HME activity, necessitating dose adjustments based on liver function tests.
What is the significance of genetic factors in drug metabolism?
What is the significance of genetic factors in drug metabolism?
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What is 'idiosyncrasy' in pharmacology?
What is 'idiosyncrasy' in pharmacology?
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What is the primary goal of biotransformation reactions in pharmacokinetics?
What is the primary goal of biotransformation reactions in pharmacokinetics?
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Describe the nature of Phase-I reactions in drug metabolism.
Describe the nature of Phase-I reactions in drug metabolism.
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How do lipophilic drugs differ in their metabolic process compared to water-soluble drugs?
How do lipophilic drugs differ in their metabolic process compared to water-soluble drugs?
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Give an example of a prodrug and its active form after metabolism.
Give an example of a prodrug and its active form after metabolism.
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What is one rare outcome of Phase-I reactions during drug metabolism?
What is one rare outcome of Phase-I reactions during drug metabolism?
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Study Notes
Pharmacokinetics
- The term "Pharmacokinetics" describes how drugs move throughout the body.
- It is often referred to as "What the body does to the drug."
Drug Metabolism
- Also referred to as "Biotransformation."
- It is the chemical alteration of a drug that occurs mostly in the liver.
- It aims to convert lipophilic (lipid-soluble) drugs into water-soluble (hydrophilic, ionized, or polar) metabolites.
- This conversion facilitates their excretion in urine.
- Water-soluble drugs are not metabolized and are excreted unchanged in urine.
- Lipophilic drugs can be reabsorbed by the renal tubular cells after filtration through the renal glomeruli, slowing their renal excretion.
- Therefore, metabolism converts these drugs into a water-soluble form to facilitate their renal excretion.
Phases of Biotransformation Reactions
- They occur in two main phases, Phase I and Phase II.
Phase I Reactions
- They are "Non-Synthetic" reactions.
- The drug undergoes oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis.
- Result in one of the following:
- Conversion of an active drug into an inactive metabolite.
- Conversion of an active drug into an active metabolite.
- Conversion of an inactive drug into an active metabolite, also known as a "prodrug".
- In rare cases, a toxic metabolite can be formed, such as formaldehyde from the metabolism of methyl alcohol.
- Some insecticides, such as Parathion and Malathion, are oxidized into toxic Paraoxon and Malaoxon, respectively.
Phase II Reactions
- They are "Synthetic", or "Conjugation" reactions.
- The drug, or a metabolite from Phase I, is conjugated with an endogenous polar compound.
- These compounds include glucuronic acid, sulphate, glycine, acetate, glutathione, or a methyl group.
- Mostly result in drug inactivation, with some exceptions.
- Morphine (active) is partially converted into morphine 6-glucuronide (active metabolite).
- Minoxidil (inactive) is conjugated into minoxidil sulphate (active).
- Most drugs are metabolized by both Phase I and Phase II reactions, or by only one phase.
- Some drugs, such as isoniazid, are metabolized by conjugation followed by hydrolysis, reversing the typical order of phases.
Sites of Biotransformation Reactions
- The liver is the main site for drug metabolism.
- Other locations include the plasma, lung, kidney, skin, and gastrointestinal tract (GIT).
Enzymes Responsible for Biotransformation Reactions
- Microsomal enzymes are located in the liver and other tissues.
- They are responsible for most drug metabolism.
Factors Affecting Hepatic Microsomal Enzyme (HME) Activity
- Several factors can influence HME activity:
- The effect of drugs
- Age
- Sex (Gender)
- Pathological conditions
- Genetic factors (Pharmacogenetics)
Drug Effect on HME
- Some drugs increase the activity of HME (HME inducers), while others reduce or inhibit HME activity (HME inhibitors).
- HME inducers can lead to tolerance and dependence, increase the metabolism of other drugs, and increase the metabolism of vitamins, leading to potential deficiencies.
- HME inhibitors can lead to increased plasma levels of some drugs if administered together, leading to potential toxicity.
Age and HME Activity
- Age influences HME activity, which is lower in neonates (especially premature infants) and older adults.
Gender and HME Activity
- Male sex hormones act as HME inducers, while female sex hormones act as HME inhibitors.
- This is an important factor in determining the lower doses for women compared to men.
Pathological Conditions and HME Activity
- Liver diseases, such as cirrhosis, can significantly reduce HME activity, requiring dose adjustments based on liver function tests.
- Cancer and starvation can also affect HME activity.
Genetic Factors and HME Activity
- There is significant variation in enzyme activity among populations (polymorphism), influencing drug action and toxicity.
- Abnormal or defective enzymes can result from genetic defects, causing changes in drug response.
- A genetic defect in pseudocholinesterase enzyme significantly reduces the metabolism of succinylcholine (skeletal muscle relaxant).
- This can lead to prolonged muscle paralysis, apnea, and even death.
- This abnormal drug response due to genetic defect is called "idiosyncrasy."
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Description
Explore the fascinating processes of pharmacokinetics and drug metabolism in this quiz. Learn about how drugs are transformed and eliminated from the body, including the phases of biotransformation. Test your knowledge on the movement of drugs and the significance of liver metabolism.