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Questions and Answers
What are the two main theories of motivation?
What are the two main theories of motivation?
Which of the following is NOT a key factor influencing eating behavior?
Which of the following is NOT a key factor influencing eating behavior?
Hormonal fluctuations play a major role in regulating sexual desire in humans.
Hormonal fluctuations play a major role in regulating sexual desire in humans.
False
Research has found a strong association between the availability of erotica and the incidence of sex crimes.
Research has found a strong association between the availability of erotica and the incidence of sex crimes.
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What are the four stages of the human sexual response cycle?
What are the four stages of the human sexual response cycle?
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According to parental investment theory, the sex that makes the larger investment in offspring will compete for mating opportunities.
According to parental investment theory, the sex that makes the larger investment in offspring will compete for mating opportunities.
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Human males are required to invest little in offspring, so their reproductive potential is maximized by mating with as many partners as possible.
Human males are required to invest little in offspring, so their reproductive potential is maximized by mating with as many partners as possible.
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What are the three main components of emotion?
What are the three main components of emotion?
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The James-Lange theory asserted that the conscious experience of emotion results from one's perception of autonomic arousal.
The James-Lange theory asserted that the conscious experience of emotion results from one's perception of autonomic arousal.
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According to the two-factor theory, people infer emotion from autonomic arousal and then label it in accordance with their cognitive explanation for the arousal.
According to the two-factor theory, people infer emotion from autonomic arousal and then label it in accordance with their cognitive explanation for the arousal.
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Research suggests that people inherit a genetic vulnerability to obesity.
Research suggests that people inherit a genetic vulnerability to obesity.
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According to settling point theory, weight tends to drift around the level at which food consumption and energy expenditure tend to achieve an equilibrium.
According to settling point theory, weight tends to drift around the level at which food consumption and energy expenditure tend to achieve an equilibrium.
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The physiological component of emotion is dominated by autonomic arousal.
The physiological component of emotion is dominated by autonomic arousal.
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The amygdala lies at the core of a complex set of neural circuits that process emotion.
The amygdala lies at the core of a complex set of neural circuits that process emotion.
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Which of the following is NOT a stage of cognitive development according to Piaget?
Which of the following is NOT a stage of cognitive development according to Piaget?
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According to Piaget, children progress in their thinking through the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation.
According to Piaget, children progress in their thinking through the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation.
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The major achievement of the sensorimotor period is the development of object permanence.
The major achievement of the sensorimotor period is the development of object permanence.
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Children's thought during the preoperational period is marked by centration, animism, irreversibility, and egocentrism.
Children's thought during the preoperational period is marked by centration, animism, irreversibility, and egocentrism.
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In the concrete operational period, children develop the ability to perform operations on mental representations.
In the concrete operational period, children develop the ability to perform operations on mental representations.
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In the formal operational period, thought becomes more systematic, abstract, and logical.
In the formal operational period, thought becomes more systematic, abstract, and logical.
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Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory asserts that children's cognitive development is shaped by social interactions, language development, and cultural factors.
Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory asserts that children's cognitive development is shaped by social interactions, language development, and cultural factors.
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According to Vygotsky, children acquire their culture's cognitive skills through collaborative dialogues with more-experienced members of their society.
According to Vygotsky, children acquire their culture's cognitive skills through collaborative dialogues with more-experienced members of their society.
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Researchers have found that infants understand complex concepts, such as addition, that they have had little opportunity to acquire through learning.
Researchers have found that infants understand complex concepts, such as addition, that they have had little opportunity to acquire through learning.
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Nativists and evolutionary theorists argue that children's brains are prewired to readily understand certain concepts.
Nativists and evolutionary theorists argue that children's brains are prewired to readily understand certain concepts.
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Which of the following is NOT a type of attachment?
Which of the following is NOT a type of attachment?
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Infants with a relatively secure attachment tend to become resilient, competent toddlers with high self-esteem.
Infants with a relatively secure attachment tend to become resilient, competent toddlers with high self-esteem.
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Cultural variations in child rearing influence the patterns of attachment seen in a society.
Cultural variations in child rearing influence the patterns of attachment seen in a society.
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According to Jay Belsky, children have been wired by evolution to respond to sensitive or insensitive care with different attachments that would have been adaptive in ancestral times.
According to Jay Belsky, children have been wired by evolution to respond to sensitive or insensitive care with different attachments that would have been adaptive in ancestral times.
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Lawrence Kohlberg's theory proposes that individuals progress through three levels of moral reasoning.
Lawrence Kohlberg's theory proposes that individuals progress through three levels of moral reasoning.
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Preconventional reasoning focuses on acts' consequences, conventional reasoning on the need to maintain social order, and postconventional reasoning on working out a personal code of ethics.
Preconventional reasoning focuses on acts' consequences, conventional reasoning on the need to maintain social order, and postconventional reasoning on working out a personal code of ethics.
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Age-related progress in moral reasoning has been found in research, but there is a lot of overlap among stages.
Age-related progress in moral reasoning has been found in research, but there is a lot of overlap among stages.
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Erik Erikson's theory proposes that individuals evolve through eight stages over the life span.
Erik Erikson's theory proposes that individuals evolve through eight stages over the life span.
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Stage theories assume that individuals progress through stages in a particular order, that progress is strongly related to age, and that new stages bring major changes in characteristic behavior.
Stage theories assume that individuals progress through stages in a particular order, that progress is strongly related to age, and that new stages bring major changes in characteristic behavior.
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Erikson's four childhood stages are trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame, initiative versus guilt, and industry versus inferiority.
Erikson's four childhood stages are trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame, initiative versus guilt, and industry versus inferiority.
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Pubescence is the 2-year span preceding puberty during which secondary sex characteristics begin to develop.
Pubescence is the 2-year span preceding puberty during which secondary sex characteristics begin to develop.
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Puberty is the stage during which primary sex characteristics develop fully.
Puberty is the stage during which primary sex characteristics develop fully.
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Girls who reach puberty early and boys who mature relatively late have a greater risk for psychological and social difficulties.
Girls who reach puberty early and boys who mature relatively late have a greater risk for psychological and social difficulties.
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The prefrontal cortex appears to be the last area of the brain to fully mature, and this maturation is not complete until late adolescence or early adulthood.
The prefrontal cortex appears to be the last area of the brain to fully mature, and this maturation is not complete until late adolescence or early adulthood.
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During adulthood, personality generally remains fairly stable, but some people do experience significant changes.
During adulthood, personality generally remains fairly stable, but some people do experience significant changes.
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For the most part, research has not supported the notion that most people go through a midlife crisis.
For the most part, research has not supported the notion that most people go through a midlife crisis.
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According to Erikson, people evolve through three stages of development in the adult years: intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus self-absorption, and integrity versus despair.
According to Erikson, people evolve through three stages of development in the adult years: intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus self-absorption, and integrity versus despair.
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General intelligence is fairly stable throughout most of adulthood, with a small decline in average scores seen after age 60.
General intelligence is fairly stable throughout most of adulthood, with a small decline in average scores seen after age 60.
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The memory losses associated with aging are moderate and may be mostly due to declining working memory.
The memory losses associated with aging are moderate and may be mostly due to declining working memory.
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Speed in cognitive processing tends to begin a gradual decline during middle adulthood.
Speed in cognitive processing tends to begin a gradual decline during middle adulthood.
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In the sensory domain, vision and hearing acuity tend to decline, but glasses and hearing aids can compensate for these losses.
In the sensory domain, vision and hearing acuity tend to decline, but glasses and hearing aids can compensate for these losses.
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Women's reactions to menopause vary and menopause is not as stressful as widely believed.
Women's reactions to menopause vary and menopause is not as stressful as widely believed.
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Brain tissue and weight tend to decline after age 60, but this loss does not appear to be the key to age-related dementias.
Brain tissue and weight tend to decline after age 60, but this loss does not appear to be the key to age-related dementias.
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Dementias are seen in about 15%-20% of people over age 75, but they are not part of the normal aging process.
Dementias are seen in about 15%-20% of people over age 75, but they are not part of the normal aging process.
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Alzheimer's patients exhibit profound loss of brain tissue and the accumulation of characteristic neural abnormalities.
Alzheimer's patients exhibit profound loss of brain tissue and the accumulation of characteristic neural abnormalities.
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Suicides and especially attempted suicides have risen dramatically among adolescents in recent decades, but completed suicide rates remain lower for adolescents than for older age groups.
Suicides and especially attempted suicides have risen dramatically among adolescents in recent decades, but completed suicide rates remain lower for adolescents than for older age groups.
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The data on adolescent violence suggest that adolescence is a time of turmoil, although the incidence of school violence has remained lower than widely perceived.
The data on adolescent violence suggest that adolescence is a time of turmoil, although the incidence of school violence has remained lower than widely perceived.
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The recent consensus of experts has been that adolescence does not appear to be more stressful than other periods of life.
The recent consensus of experts has been that adolescence does not appear to be more stressful than other periods of life.
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However, Jeffrey Arnett has marshalled evidence that suggests that adolescence is somewhat more stressful than other life stages.
However, Jeffrey Arnett has marshalled evidence that suggests that adolescence is somewhat more stressful than other life stages.
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According to Erikson, the main challenge of adolescence is the struggle for a sense of identity.
According to Erikson, the main challenge of adolescence is the struggle for a sense of identity.
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According to James Marcia, adolescents deal with their identity crisis in four ways: foreclosure, moratorium, identity diffusion, and identity achievement.
According to James Marcia, adolescents deal with their identity crisis in four ways: foreclosure, moratorium, identity diffusion, and identity achievement.
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Age trends in identity status generally are consistent with Marcia's theory, but there is great variability and most people reach identity achievement at later ages than originally envisioned.
Age trends in identity status generally are consistent with Marcia's theory, but there is great variability and most people reach identity achievement at later ages than originally envisioned.
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Adjusting to marriage is more likely to be difficult when spouses have different expectations about marital roles.
Adjusting to marriage is more likely to be difficult when spouses have different expectations about marital roles.
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Most parents are happy with their decision to have children, but the arrival of the first child represents a major transition, and the disruption of routines can be draining.
Most parents are happy with their decision to have children, but the arrival of the first child represents a major transition, and the disruption of routines can be draining.
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Parent-adolescent relations are not as contentious as widely assumed, but conflicts do increase and parents tend to feel stressed.
Parent-adolescent relations are not as contentious as widely assumed, but conflicts do increase and parents tend to feel stressed.
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For many parents the transition to an empty nest seems to be less difficult than it used to be.
For many parents the transition to an empty nest seems to be less difficult than it used to be.
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Study Notes
Motivational Theories and Concepts
- Drive theories suggest internal tension (homeostasis disruptions) push organisms.
- Incentive theories suggest external goals pull organisms.
- Evolutionary theories suggest motives are products of natural selection, boosting reproductive fitness.
- Distinctions exist between biological motives (bodily needs) and social motives (social experiences).
Motivation of Hunger
- Biological factors:
- Lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus were initially thought to be hunger on/off switches, but a simpler model.
- Neural circuits through the hypothalamus are now considered central to hunger regulation.
- Glucostats monitor blood glucose fluctuations, influencing hunger.
- Stomach sends satiety signals:
- Pancreatic hormone insulin is linked to increased hunger.
- Hormone leptin provides hypothalamus with fat-store info.
- Environmental factors:
- Palatability, quantity, and variety of food, and presence of others influence eating.
- Food cues (odors) trigger hunger.
- Innate taste preferences exist, but learning is more influential.
- Classical conditioning and observational learning shape food preferences.
- Exposure shapes preferences; diverse cultural eating habits exist.
- Stressful events can increase arousal and overeating.
Sexual Motivation
- Determinants of sexual desire:
- Hormonal fluctuations strongly influence animal sexual desire; less impact on humans.
- Erotica transiently increases sexual desire, but not associated with sex crimes.
- Exposure to erotica may change attitudes toward sexual behavior. Aggressive pornography may affect sexual coercion.
- Partner attraction is a major driver of sexual desire in both animals and humans.
- Sexual orientation:
- Heterosexuality and homosexuality are often viewed as distinct categories, but they sit on a continuum.
- Environmental explanations aren't supported by research. Recent twin studies suggest a genetic component.
- Prenatal hormonal variations may influence sexual orientation. Female sexual orientation appears more plastic than male.
- The human sexual response:
- Masters and Johnson described four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
The Roots of Obesity
- Obesity is a major health risk factor.
- Genetics contribute to obesity vulnerability.
- Chronically, energy intake exceeds energy expenditure.
- Set point theory: body regulates fat-cell levels, making weight loss challenging.
- Settling point theory: weight stabilizes around an equilibrium of energy intake and expenditure.
- Dietary restraint fluctuations may contribute.
Emotion
- Cognitive component: subjective, intense, and difficult-to-control feelings. Cognitive appraisals of events influence emotions.
- Physiological component: autonomic arousal. Polygraph detects arousal, but it's not a precise lie detector. Amygdala (LeDoux) is central to emotion processing.
- Facial expressions show agreement across cultures in emotion identification. Other emotion aspects show cross-cultural consistency. Cultural differences occur in categorization and emotion display.
- Behavioral component: emotions revealed through body language. Recognizable emotions through facial expressions. Facial feedback: facial muscles signal brain, aiding recognition.
Theoretical Views
- James-Lange theory: emotions arise from perceived autonomic arousal.
- Cannon-Bard theory: emotions originate from subcortical brain areas.
- Two-factor theory: infer emotion from arousal, labeling based on cognition.
- Evolutionary theories: emotions are innate reactions, separate from cognition.
The Achievement Motive
- David McClelland used TAT to measure need for achievement.
- High achievers work hard, persist, and delay gratification.
- High achievers opt for challenges with moderate difficulty.
- Probability of success and incentive value of success increase achievement pursuits.
- Fear of failure can influence achievement pursuits.
Gender Differences in Sexual Activity
- Males have more frequent and earlier sexual thoughts and initiate sex more often.
- In general, males express greater openness to casual sex and tend to have more partners than females.
Gender Differences in Mate Preferences
- Males globally place more emphasis on female youthfulness and attractiveness.
- Females globally place more emphasis on male intelligence and financial resources.
Development Across the Life Span
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Prenatal development: Germinal (zygote implants), Embryonic (organ formation), Fetal (organ function maturation). Environmental factors (malnutrition, substance use, illness).
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Motor development: Cephalocaudal (head-to-foot), proximodistal (center-outward) trends.
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Cognitive development: Piaget's stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational). Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.
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Temperament: stable mood, activity, and reactivity characteristics.
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Attachment: close emotional bonds with caregivers. Harlow's studies, Bowlby's view, attachment categories (secure, ambivalent, avoidant, disorganized). Jay Belsky's evolutionary perspective.
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Moral development: Kohlberg's stages (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).
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Personality development: Stability across adulthood. Erikson's stages (intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. self-absorption, integrity vs. despair).
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Development in Adolescence: Identity formation. Marcia's identity statuses (foreclosure, moratorium, diffusion, achievement).
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Development in Adulthood: Stability of general intelligence, cognitive changes (memory, processing speed). Physical changes (sensory loss, menopause, brain tissue), disease risk like Alzheimer's.
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