Personality Psychology: Theories and Perspectives

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Define personality, discuss the nature of personality theories, and identify the four basic theoretical perspectives on personality.

Personality - the unique and relatively enduring set of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that characterize an individual. Personality Theories - frameworks for understanding how personality develops and behaves, based on different perspectives. Four basic theoretical perspectives: Psychoanalytic, Humanistic, Social Cognitive, and Trait.

Discuss the events that shaped Freud's views about human nature.

Freud was influenced by his earlier work with patients suffering from mental disorders (hysteria), leading him to develop the theory of the unconscious mind. His personal experiences and interactions with patients helped shape his views on human nature as being deeply influenced by unconscious drives and childhood experiences.

Distinguish among the three levels of personality and their associated levels of awareness.

Conscious - thoughts, feeling, and memories that a person is currently aware of. Preconscious - information that can be easily brought to a consciousness, like memories. Unconscious - contains thoughts, feelings, and memories not accessible to the conscious mind, often influencing behavior.

Describe the nature and development of the three basic structures of personality in Freud's psychoanalytic theory.

Id - operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic desires and instincts. Ego- Operates on the reality principle, negotiating between the desires of the id and the constraints of the external world. Superego - represents internalized moral standards and ideals, striving for perfection. Signup and view all the answers

Discuss Freud's theory of ego defense mechanisms, and be able to identify examples of each defense mechanisms in Table 11.1.

Defense Mechanisms - unconscious strategies the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety and conflict. Repression - pushing distressing memories into the unconscious. Denial - refusing to acknowledge reality. Projection - attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts to others. Displacement - redirecting emotions to a safer target. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the psychosexual stages of development, focusing on the core conflict at each stage.

Oral stage (0-1 years) - conflict over weining. Anal stage (1-3 years) - conflict over toilet training. Phallic stage (3-6 years) - conflict with Oedipus complec and identification with same-sex parent. Latency Stage (6-puberty) - sexual feelings dormant , focus on learning and peer relationships. Genital Stage (puberty-adulthood) - focus on mature sexual relationships. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the consequence of fixation.

Fixation - if conflicts are not resloved at a particular stage , an individual may become fixated and carry over unresolved issues into adulthood, manifesting in behaviors or traits associated with that stage Signup and view all the answers

Explain what Oedipus complex refers to, and describe its role in personality development.

The Oedipus complex occurs in the Phallic stage, where a child feels a subconcious desire for the opposite sex parent and jealousy toward the same sex parent. Resolving this conflict is critical for developing a healthy adult personality Signup and view all the answers

Explain the similarities and differences between Freud and the neo-Freudians.

Similarities: Neo-Freudians accepted the importance of the unconscious and early childhood experiences. Differences: The placed less emphasis on sexual drives and more on social and cultural factors Signup and view all the answers

Describe the key ideas of neo-Freudians Carl Jung, Karen Horney, and Alfred Adler.

Carl Jung- Focused on the collective unconscious and archetypes shared by all humans. Karen Horney - Focused on the role of social relationships in personality and criticized Freud's focus on sexual development. Alfred Adler - Emphasized the importance of striving for superiority and overcoming inferiority Signup and view all the answers

Identify criticisms of Freud's theory and, more generally, of the psychoanalytic perspective

Criticisms include a lack of empirical evidence, overemphasis on sexuality, and the theory being difficult to test scientifically. Signup and view all the answers

Discuss Carl Rogers's theory of personality, especially the importance of the self-concept, actualizing tendency, and unconditional/conditional positive regard.

Self-concept : the image a person has of themselves, which can be either positive or negative. Actualizing tendency : the drive to reach one's full potential. Unconditional positive regard: acceptance and love without conditions, necessary for healthy personality development. Conditional positive regard: approval that is given only when certain behaviors are displayed, which can lead to incongruence in self-concept Signup and view all the answers

Identify the key strengths and weaknesses of the humanistic perspective.

Strengths : focuses on personal growth, free will, the positive aspects of human nature. Weaknesses : criticized for being overly idealistic and lacking scientific rigor Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the key ideas of Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory of personality, and explain his principle of reciprocal determinism.

Reciprocal determinism : Personality is shaped by the interaction of behavior, cognitive factors, and enviornmental influences Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the role Bandura assigns to self-efficacy beliefs in personality development.

Self-efficacy : one's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations. It influences how goals are approached, challenges are faced, and effort is applied Signup and view all the answers

Specify the strengths and weaknesses of the social cognitive perspective.

Strengths : focuses on cognitive processes and their influences on behavior and personality. Weaknesses : can neglect emotionl and unconscious influences on personality Signup and view all the answers

Describe trait theories of personality, and distinguish between surface traits and source traits.

Trait theories - focus on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics. Surface traits - observable traits like outgoing or shy. Source traits - underlying traits that form the foundation of surface traits Signup and view all the answers

Compare and contrast the trait theories of Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck with each other and with the five-factor model

Cattell - Identified 16 primary traits using factor analysis. Eysenck - focused on three broad traits : extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Five Factor Model - five broad traits (OCEAN) as the foundation of personality: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism Signup and view all the answers

Describe the dimensions of the five-factor and six-factor models.

Five factor model (OCEAN) -openness to experience -conscientiousness -extraversion -agreeableness -neuroticism Six Factors (HEXACO) : Addes Honesty-Humility as a new factor Signup and view all the answers

Describe the research strategies used in the field of behavioral genetics, and discuss research findings on the relationship between genetics and personality traits.

Behavioral genetics : studies how genetic and environmental factors influence personality. Research findings : genetics significantly influences traits like extraversion and neuroticism Signup and view all the answers

Identify criticisms of the trait perspective.

Criticisms: Doesnt explain the development of traits, Ignores the role of situational factors and motivations in shaping behavior Signup and view all the answers

Name and describe the two projective tests and the four self-report inventories discussed in the text.

Projective tests: Rorschach Inkblot Test : Ambiguous inkblots interpreted to reveal unconscious thoughts. Thematic Apperception Test - Participants create stories based on ambiguous pictures. Self-report inventories: MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) : Assesses personality and psychological disorders. CPI (California Psychological Inventory) : Assesses personality traits in normal populations. Myers-Briggs Type Indicatior (MBTI) : Assesses personality type using preferences. NEO-PI-R : Assesses the Big Five personality traits Signup and view all the answers

Identify the key strengths and weaknesses of projective tests and self-report inventories

Projective tests: Strengths: Provide insights into unconscious processes. Weaknesses: Lack reliability and validity. Self-report inventories: Strengths: Reliable and standardized. Weaknesses : Can be influenced by social desirability bias Signup and view all the answers

Define social psychology, social cognition, and social influence.

Social Psychology- the scientific study of how individuals thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. Social Cognition- how people proces, store, and apply information about others and social situations. Social influence - the ways people influence others, including conformity, compliance, and obedience. Signup and view all the answers

Define person perception and explain how it is affected by interpersonal context and social norms.

Person Perception - the process by which we form impressions of others. Interpersonal Context - refers to the situation in which we interact with others, which can affect how we perceive them. Social Norms - Culturally defined rules of acceptable behavior that influence how we perceive others based on the norms of the context we are in Signup and view all the answers

Define social categorization and implicit personality theory and explain how these, as well as physical attractiveness, affect person perception.

Social Categorization - the classification of people into groups based on shared characteristics, such as race, gender or age. Implicit Personality Theory - a set of assumptions about how different types of people, their traits, and behaviors are related. Physical Attractivness - People are often judged more favorably based on their physical appearance, as attractive individuals are generally seen as more sociable, competent, and desirable Signup and view all the answers

Identify the factors influencing one's attraction to another person.

Factors include proximity (physical closeness), similarity (shared values and interests) , physical attractiveness, and reciprocity (liking those who like us) Signup and view all the answers

Define attribution and the fundamental attribution error.

Attribution - the process of explaining the causes of peoples behavior. Fundamental Attribution Error - the tendency to attribute others behavior to internal (dispositional) causes while underestimating the impact of external (situational) factors. Signup and view all the answers

Define and provide examples of the attributional biases that affect our judgments about behavior, including blaming the victim, hindsight bias, the just-world hypothesis, and the self-serving bias.

Blaming the Victim: Holding victims responsible for their misfortunes ( blaming someone for being a target of a crime). Hindsight Bias: Believing that an event was predictable after it occurred ('I knew they would break uo' after hearing about it). Just-World Hypothesis: The belief that the world is fair, and people get what they deserve (believing that a person who loses their job must have done something to deserve it). Self-Serving Bias: Attributing one's successes to internal factors and failures to external ones (attributing a win to personal skill but a loss to bad luck) Signup and view all the answers

Identify cultural differences in patterns of attributional biases.

Individualistic cultures (western cultures) tend to emphasize dispositional attributions (blaming people personal traits). Collective cultures (Eastern cultures) tend to emphasize situational attributions (focusing on group context or external factors) Signup and view all the answers

List the components of an attitude.

Affective Componet: The emotional response or feelings toward an object or person (liking or disliking something). Cognitive Component: The beliefs or thoughts about the object or person ('This is a good product'). Behavioral Component : The way we act toward the object or person (buying the product) Signup and view all the answers

Identify the conditions under which attitudes are most likely to determine behavior.

Attitudes are more likely to predict behavior when they are strong, specific, and accessible in memory. Additionally, behavior is influenced when there are low external pressures and when the attitude is consistent with the behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Define cognitive dissonance, identify how it occurs, discuss how it is typically resolved, and explain how it affects behaviors and attitudes

Cognitive Dissonance: a psychologist discomfort that arises when a person holds two conflicting beliefs or attitudes or behaves in a way that contradicts their beliefs. How it occurs: It occurs when someones engages in behavior that contradicts their beliefs (smoking despite knowing its unhealthy). Resoltion: The discomfort is typically resolved by changing one's attitude or behavior (justifying smoking by downplaying the risks of quitting smoking). Impact: Cognitive dissonance often leads to attitude or behavior changes in order to restore consistency Signup and view all the answers

Define prejudice and stereotypes and discuss how they are related.

Prejudice - a negative attitude toward a group or its members based on their social identity. Stereotypes - generalized beliefs about a group of people. Relationship - stereotypes form the foundation for prejudices (believing all members of a group share certain characteristics leads to negative evaluations of them) Signup and view all the answers

Define ingroup and outgroup and explain how the outgroup homogeneity effect and ingroup bias can lead to prejudicial attitudes.

Ingroup: a group to which a person belongs and identifies with. Outgroup : a group to which a person does not belong. Outgroup Homogeneity Effect: the tendency to see members of an outgroup as more similar to each other than they actually are. Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor one's own group over others, leading to prejudice against outgroups Signup and view all the answers

Explain what implicit attitudes are and how they are measured.

Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious, automatic attitudes or stereotypes that influence behavior. Measurement: Often measured using tests like the Implicit Association Test (IAT), which assesses automation associations between concepts Signup and view all the answers

Describe the 'Robbers Cave' study and explain the results of this research

The Robbers Cave study involved two groups of boys at a summer camp who were initially kept separate and then brought into competition, leading to hostility. Results: The boys showed ingroup favoritism and outgroup hostility. The conflict was reduced by introducing superordinate goals (goals that required cooperation between the two groups). Signup and view all the answers

List the conditions that are essential for reducing tension between groups.

Superordinate goals that require cooperation between groups, Equal status contact between group members, Cooperative activities that encourage working together, Support from authority figures in promoting group harmony Signup and view all the answers

Define social influence and conformity.

Social influence - the impact that others have on an individual's behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs. Conformity - The act of changing one's behavior to match the responses or actions of others, often due to perceived social pressure Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the findings of Solomon Asch's research on conformity.

Aschs experiment demonstrated that people tend to conform to a groups opinion, even when its clearly wrong, simply due to social pressure. Participants often chose an incorrect answer because the majority of the group gave that answer Signup and view all the answers

Identify the factors that influence conformity, including normative and informational social influence, and explain how culture affects conformity.

Normative Social Influence: Conforming to fit in or be accepted by a group. Informational Social Influence: Conforming because we believe others have more information or a better understanding. Cultural Influence: Collectivistic cultures emphasize conformity more than individualistic cultures, where personal autonomy is often prioritized. Signup and view all the answers

Define obedience and discuss the experimental design and results of Milgram's obedience experiments.

Obedience is the act of performing a behavior in direct response to the orders or commands of an authority figure. Milgrams Experiment Design : Participants (referred to as 'teachers') were asked to administer increasingly severe electric shocks to a 'learner' (a confederate) every time the learner gave an incorrect answer to a memory task. The shocks increased in voltage with each error, up to a maximum of 450 volts. The learner was in a separate room, so the teacher could hear but not see the learners reaction. Results: Prior to the study, experts predicted that few participants would go all the way to 450 volts. However, ⅔ of participants (26 of 40) administered the full shock, showing high levels of obedience to authority, even when the learner screamed in pain. None of the participants stopped before reaching 300 volts, suggesting people may follow authority figures to extreme lengths. Signup and view all the answers

List and explain the factors in Milgram's original experiments that promoted obedience

The Situation or Context : The authority figures presence and the environment made it easier for participants to comply with the request. The setting in a respected institution (Yale) lent credibility to the authority figure. Gradual Escalation of the Task : The shocks increased in small increments, making it easier for participants to rationalize their actions and not feel responsible for the extreme behavior. Authority's Behvior and Reassurances: The experimenter reassured participants that they would not be held responsible for any harm caused, which diminished their hesitation. Physical and Psychological Separation from the Learner: The learned was in a separate room, and participants were not directly confronted with the pain they were causing, Confidence The Learner Was Actually Receiving Shocks: The teacher was not given any clear evidence that the learner was truly being shocked, which reduced guilt or hesitation Signup and view all the answers

List and explain the factors identified by Milgram and other researchers that decrease obedience and help people resist illegal or unethical orders from authority figures.

Seeing Others Disobey : If others resist, it is easier for someone to stop following orders too. Having Control: When people have the choice to stop or help, they're more likely to resist. Not Trusting the Authority : If the authority figure seems unqualified or not believable, people are less likely to obey. Feeling Uncomftable : If people feel bad about what they're doing, they may stop, especially if they realize it is wrong. Signup and view all the answers

Distinguish between altruism and prosocial behavior.

Prosical Behavior: Helping others in any way, even if you also get something out of it (feeling good about yourself). Altruism: Helping others without expecting anything in return. You help just because you want to. Signup and view all the answers

List the factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of whether people will help a stranger.

What increases helping: Empathy : if you can understand someones pain, you are most likely to help, Feeling Good : people tend to help when they are in a good mood, Feeling Guility: If you feel guilty, you might try to make up for it by helping, Seeing Others Help: If you see someones else helping, you are more likely to help too, Knowing How to Help: If you knowhat to do, youre more likely to step in, Personal Connection: If you know the person who needs help, you are more likely to help them. What decreases helping: Bystander Effect: When others are around, you might think someone else will help, so you don't, Diffusion of Responsibility: If you're with a group, you feel less personal responsibility to act, Unclear Situation: If you are not sure if someone really needs help, you might not act, Personal Cost: If helping will be hard or risky for you, you're less likely to help Signup and view all the answers

Define the bystander effect and explain how diffusion of responsibility and other factors played a role in the death of Kitty Genovese

Bystander Effect: The more people around, the less likely someone will help in an emergency. Kitty Genovese: Many people saw or heard Kitty being attacked, but no one helped because they thought someone else would. This is an example of the bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility Signup and view all the answers

Identify biological and environmental factors associated with aggression.

Biological Factors: Genetics, Brain, Hormones, Alcohol. Environmental Factors: Frusturation, Heat, Watching Aggression Signup and view all the answers

Define social loafing and social striving and give examples of each.

Social Loafing: When people put in less effort in a group task because they think others will do the work. For example, someone who doesn't do their fair share in a group project. Social Striving: In some cultures, like in some Asian countries, people work harder in groups because they care about the group's successes. For example, a team might work extra hard in Japan because they feel responsible for everyone. Signup and view all the answers

Define social facilitation and deindividuation and give examples of each.

Social Facilitation: When people perform better on a task if others are watching. For example, someone might run faster in a race when they have sopectators. Deindividuation: When people in a group lose their sense of self and do things they normally wouldn't. This happens because they feel anonymous. For example, people might act aggressively in a large crowd, like during a riot, because they don't feel personally responsible. Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Personality and Theories

The unique and relatively enduring set of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that characterize an individual. Personality theories are frameworks for understanding its development and behavior.

Freud's Influences

Freud's views were shaped by work with mental disorders (hysteria), leading to the theory of the unconscious mind.

Levels of Awareness

Conscious - current awareness; Preconscious - easily recalled memories; Unconscious - inaccessible thoughts, influencing behavior.