Penicillin Discovery and Development
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following best describes the initial opposition faced by Aneurin Bevan in establishing the NHS?

  • Lack of public support for a nationalized healthcare system.
  • Resistance from doctors concerned about loss of autonomy and income. (correct)
  • Concerns over the administrative complexity of a unified healthcare organization.
  • Disagreement among political parties regarding the funding model.

The National Health Service Act was established in 1948.

False (B)

What key principle underpinned the initial provision of services by the NHS?

Free at the point of delivery

Bevan agreed to pay GPs depending on the number of ______ they saw, which helped to overcome opposition to the NHS.

<p>patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following NHS structures with their responsibilities:

<p>Regional Boards = Organization of hospital services Individual Contracts = Employment of doctors, dentists, opticians and pharmacists Local Authority Health Services = Running maternity clinics, vaccination programs &amp; school dental services</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following groups primarily benefited from the NHS, who were previously unprotected by the National Insurance system of 1911?

<p>Women and children. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The creation of the NHS had no impact on increasing life expectancy in Britain.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What report provided the basis for the idea of the NHS?

<p>Beveridge's report</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why did Alexander Fleming initially seek a new treatment for infections?

<p>Because existing antiseptics were ineffective against infections like gangrene and septicaemia in deep wounds. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Fleming immediately recognized the significance of his penicillin discovery and secured funding for its mass production.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What critical role did Norman Heatley play in the Oxford Hospital team's penicillin research?

<p>He constructed cheap equipment and purified penicillin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Gerhard Domagk's daughter was cured by __________, a bright red chemical initially used to dye wool and leather.

<p>Prontosil</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match each scientist with their contribution to the discovery and development of penicillin:

<p>Alexander Fleming = Discovered penicillin and published initial research. Howard Florey = Led the Oxford team that pursued Fleming's research. Ernst Chain = Collaborated with Florey and Heatley to purify and test penicillin. Norman Heatley = Developed equipment and methods to purify penicillin in usable quantities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant limitation Fleming encountered in his early work with penicillin?

<p>It was difficult to produce in large quantities. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Prontosil was tested on mice and humans before being used to cure Domagk’s daughter.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of Florey and Chain's 1940 experiment testing penicillin on mice infected with streptococcus?

<p>The mice treated with penicillin survived, while the untreated mice died. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why did Florey seek funding for penicillin research in the United States rather than Britain?

<p>Britain was preoccupied with the war effort and had limited resources. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Florey patented the process for mass production of penicillin to ensure its profitability and control its distribution.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary reason the team initially decided to use penicillin only on children?

<p>Smaller dosages</p> Signup and view all the answers

Before penicillin could be administered, the powder had to be mixed with ______ and syringes needed to be sterilized.

<p>saline</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following individuals with their contributions to the development of penicillin:

<p>Flemming = Original discoverer of penicillin Florey = Led the team that proved penicillin's effectiveness and need for mass production Chain = Worked with Florey on penicillin research Heatly = Experimented to find the best way to produce large quantities</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key event demonstrated the effectiveness of penicillin on a large scale, leading to its widespread use?

<p>Its successful use in treating Allied casualties on D-Day. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The British government readily provided funding for penicillin research due to the ongoing war.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name one advancement in medicine that developed after World War I.

<p>Prontosil</p> Signup and view all the answers

During World War II, hospitals were at risk due to ______, necessitating the establishment of casualty sorting stations.

<p>bombings</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was Sir Almroth Wright's primary contention regarding the discovery and development of penicillin?

<p>Flemming was not adequately recognized for his initial discovery. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Penicillin's success only impacted the medical field directly involved in antibiotic development with no impact on other areas

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the reasons medical schools started discouraging women from training as doctors in the 1920s?

<p>They believed training women was a waste of time</p> Signup and view all the answers

Following World War I, what area faced difficulty in obtaining funding?

<p>Research teams pursuing medical advancements (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Due to concerns about women leaving the profession, some hospitals dismissed them from work upon ______ during the 1920s and 1930s.

<p>marriage</p> Signup and view all the answers

Women in medicine achieved complete gender equality in pay and opportunities in British hospitals during the 1920s.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why were some evacuated children not receiving adequate medical care during the war?

<p>There were fewer doctors and resources in the areas where children were evacuated. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Newly qualified nurses were initially prioritized for service in war zones to ensure experienced nurses remained in Britain for civilian care.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key realization about wound care led to the increased use of penicillin during the war?

<p>Cleaning wounds was essential to prevent infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

Harold Gillies emphasized the importance of working with other medical experts and informing people on new techniques, which was properly recognised in ______.

<p>1930</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following wartime medical advancements with their respective descriptions:

<p>Saline Baths = Technique used by McIndoe to treat burns, inspired by observing that burns of pilots who crashed into the sea healed better. Skin Grafts = Transplanting a layer of skin with good blood flow to damaged areas to facilitate regrowth. Guinea Pig Club = Name given by McIndoe's patients due to the experimental nature of the new surgical techniques. Dried Plasma Pack = A development that made transportation and storage of blood plasma easier during the war.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What psychological support did Neville and Elain Blond provide to pilots with facial injuries?

<p>They arranged for local families to welcome pilots into their homes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Dwight Harken's successful removal of bullets and shrapnel from the heart was a minor contribution to heart surgery, as it was already a common procedure.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what year was the rhesus blood system developed, further improving the safety of blood transfusions?

<p>1939</p> Signup and view all the answers

At the battle of Dunkirk in 1940, none of the 17,000 vaccinated soldiers who were wounded developed ______.

<p>tetanus</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was 'shell shock' known as after World War 2?

<p>Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What unique approach did McIndoe use to treat pilots suffering from severe burns?

<p>Placing patients in saline baths. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The 'Guinea Pig Club' was a group of surgeons who experimented with new plastic surgery techniques during the war.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which American surgeon is known for his pioneering neurosurgery work during World War I?

<p>Harvey Cushing</p> Signup and view all the answers

In 1938, Dr. Janet Vaughan collected 50 bottles of blood, which was the ______ stock stored in London at the outset of the war.

<p>largest</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following individuals with their contributions to medicine during wartime:

<p>Harold Gillies = Pioneered plastic surgery techniques, particularly for facial injuries. Archibald McIndoe = Specialized in treating pilots with severe burns and psychological support. Dwight Harken = Developed a technique to remove bullets and shrapnel from the heart. Janet Vaughan = Collected and stored blood for transfusions, establishing a blood bank.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary reason McIndoe's patients called themselves the 'Guinea Pig club'?

<p>The treatments they received were experimental and involved trial and error. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Dwight Harken's successful removal of bullets and shrapnel from the heart was considered impossible by many doctors at the time.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What critical role did Dr. Janet Vaughan play in preparing for potential wartime emergencies related to blood supply?

<p>Collected and stored blood from volunteers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The development of the ______ blood system in 1939 significantly improved the safety of blood transfusions.

<p>rhesus</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following individuals with their contributions during and after WWII:

<p>Archibald McIndoe = Pioneered reconstructive surgery for burned airmen and emphasized psychological support. Dwight Harken = Developed a technique to remove bullets and shrapnel from the heart successfully. Janet Vaughan = Organized and stored blood for transfusions, improving wartime medical care. William Beveridge = Authored a report identifying key social problems, laying the foundation for the welfare state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why was the development of dried plasma packs important during the war?

<p>They simplified transportation and storage, making blood products more accessible. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During WWII, all soldiers wounded at the Battle of Dunkirk developed tetanus, despite vaccination efforts.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was 'shell shock' and how did attitudes toward it evolve into the understanding of PTSD during and after WWII?

<p>Shell shock was the WWI term for what is known as PTSD.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Emergency Medical Service, created in 1939, was established to ______ hospitals and health care during the war.

<p>coordinate</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of government involvement in health during the late 19th century?

<p>Improving living conditions and public hygiene. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

William Beveridge strongly desired to lead the effort to develop ideas for rebuilding Britain after the war from the start.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Identify three of the five key problems outlined in the Beveridge Report (1942).

<p>Want, disease, ignorance</p> Signup and view all the answers

The National Insurance Act of 1946 provided benefits such as old age pensions, maternity benefits, payments to the sick, and assistance to the ______.

<p>unemployed</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the main reason East Grinstead became known as the village where 'no one stared'?

<p>Local families and businesses actively welcomed and supported McIndoe's patients. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the surgeon with their surgical focus/area of expertise:

<p>Harvey Cushing = Neurosurgery Wylie McKissock = Neurosurgery Dwight Harken = Heart surgery</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Flemming's Initial Focus

Flemming noticed antiseptics failed in deep wound infections like gangrene and sought a new treatment.

Flemming's Accidental Discovery

Flemming accidentally discovered that mould destroyed staphylococcus bacteria in a culture.

Penicillium Identification

Flemming named the mould 'penicillium' and recognized it as an antibiotic that fought bacteria with bacteria.

Prontosil's Discovery

Prontosil, a red chemical dye, was found to cure streptococcus infections in mice.

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Domagk's Daughter

Domagk used Prontosil to cure his daughter's severe streptococcus infection after other treatments failed.

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Florey, Chain and Heatley

Florey, Chain, and Heatley followed up on Flemming's research, with Heatley playing a vital role in purifying penicillin efficiently.

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Mouse Experiment (1940)

In 1940, Florey and Chain's team tested penicillin on mice infected with streptococcus; those treated with penicillin survived.

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Production Challenges

Large-scale production of penicillin was needed to purify enough for human trials.

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National Health Service (NHS)

The UK's healthcare system, established in 1948, providing services from pregnancy to old age, funded by taxes.

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Aneurin Bevan

Poverty in Wales motivated him to improve lives through trade union activism. Later as Minister of Health he was responsible for creating the NHS.

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Initial opposition to the NHS

Doctors feared loss of income and control due to being employed by the NHS instead of running private practices.

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Compromises to establish the NHS

Bevan allowed doctors to see private patients alongside NHS work and changed payment to per-patient to address concerns.

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Doctor enrollment in NHS at start

In 1948, at its launch, ~90% of British doctors had joined the NHS, signaling its broad acceptance.

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NHS structure

Hospital services, general practitioners, and local authority health services (like maternity clinics) were all part of NHS.

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Funding for the NHS

Care was free at the point of use, paid for by taxes and National Insurance, ensuring access for all.

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The Welfare State

The NHS alongside the National Insurance Act, established a system that supports people throughout their lives.

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Red Cross in WWII

Organization that helped medical services by setting up first aid posts and providing stretcher bearers.

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QAIMNS

A medical service where many nurses served abroad, with members receiving both physical and military training.

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Penicillin's role in WWII

Essential to prevent infection, its mass production greatly increased survival rates during the war.

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Plastic Surgery

A medical specialty that saw great advancements due to facial injuries in WWI and WWII.

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Harold Gillies

He stressed the importance of working with other medical experts when dealing with facial injuries.

Signup and view all the flashcards

McIndoe

He specialized in plastic surgery and treated pilots with deep burns during the war.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Saline Baths

Burns of pilots who crashed into the sea healed better than ones who crashed onto land.

Signup and view all the flashcards

Skin Grafts

Used when severe damage was done, and skin couldn’t grow back.

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Guinea Pig Club

McIndoe's patients who underwent new techniques in treatment where the methods being used were so new that no one could tell if they would work.

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East Grinstead

Village known for welcoming McIndoe's patients and not staring at their injuries.

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Harvey Cushing

American surgeon who worked on neurosurgery in WWI.

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Wylie McKissock

British surgeon who led a neurosurgical unit dealing with brain injuries during the war.

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Dwight Harken

He developed a technique to remove bullets and shrapnel from the heart.

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Dr. Janet Vaughan

Collected 50 bottles of blood donated by volunteers in 1938.

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Tetanus

A disease caused by microorganisms entering wounds and getting into the blood stream that resulted in a vaccine.

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Penicillin Girls

Individual who cultured penicillin in large quantities for Heatly's experiments.

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Albert Alexander

The first human patient treated with penicillin.

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Accessible to Everyone

Florey's reason for not patenting penicillin, to ensure wide availability.

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Lack of Funding in Britain

The primary reason Florey sought funding in the US for penicillin development.

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North Africa

A location where Florey conducted larger scale tests of penicillin's effectiveness during the war.

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1944

Year by which there was enough penicillin to treat all allied casualties on D-Day.

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Fleming, Florey, & Chain

Individuals who jointly received the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1945 for their work on penicillin.

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200 Million Lives

Estimated number of lives saved by penicillin since its first use in 1942.

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Streptomycin

A drug developed after penicillin, effective against tuberculosis.

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Prontosil

A 'second magic bullet' that was an important development after WW1.

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Ministry of Health

Organization created in 1919, indicating the government's increasing role in public health.

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Emergency Medical Service

Service established in 1939 in Britain to deal with war casualties.

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Waste of Time

Belief held by some in the 1920s, contributing to the discouragement of women in medical training.

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GP

An outcome by which women aimed due to facing discrimination in securing hospital positions.

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2,000 to 2,900

Increased enrollment of female medical students due to new opportunities.

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Blood Transfusion Service

The efficient system developed during WWII for collecting, storing, and delivering blood.

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Tetanus Vaccine

Vaccine developed to prevent tetanus, a dangerous infection caused by microorganisms in wounds.

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PTSD (Shell Shock)

Condition experienced during WWI (shell shock) and WWII, involving psychological trauma.

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Emergency Medical Service (EMS)

Service created in 1939 to coordinate hospitals and healthcare during the war.

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William Beveridge

Author of the Beveridge Report, which identified key problems and proposed solutions for post-war Britain.

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Five Giants

Five key problems identified in the Beveridge Report: Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor, and Idleness.

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Clement Attlee

British Prime Minister announced the creation of a welfare state, ensuring a minimum standard of living.

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National Insurance Act, 1946

Act providing old-age pensions, maternity benefits, and payments for the sick and unemployed.

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Stately homes as hospitals

Provided peaceful conditions for servicemen in psychiatric hospitals to help during recovery.

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Ignorance (Beveridge Report)

Term for lack of education, meaning people were unlikely to get better jobs or develop a better understanding of society

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Squalor (Beveridge Report)

Term for living in dirty, unhygienic conditions

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Idleness (Beveridge Report)

Term for unemployment, leads to depression and criminal behaviors

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Study Notes

Penicillin Development

  • Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin after a staphylococcus culture was left out, leading to mold growth that destroyed the staphylococcus.
  • Fleming identified the mold as part of the penicillium genus
  • In 1929, Fleming published his research in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology.
  • In 1932, Gerhard Domagk tested Prontosil, a red chemical dye, discovering it could kill streptococcus infections in mice.
  • Domagk used Prontosil to cure his daughter's streptococcus infection.
  • Howard Florey and Ernst Chain followed up on Fleming's research in 1933 at Oxford, with Norman Heatley providing key biochemistry expertise.
  • In 1940, Florey and Chain tested penicillin on mice infected with streptococcus, with the treated mice surviving longer.
  • Albert Alexander, suffering from septicemia, was the first human patient treated with penicillin in 1941, showing initial recovery before supplies ran out.
  • Florey chose not to patent penicillin
  • Florey sought funding in the US due to Britain's war-related constraints, leading to involvement from 35 institutions and advancements in penicillin production and storage.
  • By 1944, sufficient penicillin was available to treat all Allied casualties on D-Day.
  • In 1945, Fleming, Florey, and Chain jointly received the Nobel Prize for Medicine.
  • Penicillin's success spurred research leading to streptomycin, effective against TB, and synthetic penicillin for allergic individuals.

Impact of World War II

  • The Emergency Medical Service (1939) coordinated hospitals and healthcare during the war, especially after bombing raids.
  • During the 1920s, medical schools turned women away
  • WWII increased the number of female medical students from 2,000 to 2,900 by 1946.

Role of Women

  • Women in medicine faced setbacks after World War I but gained opportunities during World War II within the Emergency Medical Service.

Nursing in War Zones

  • Many nurses served abroad with military hospitals, in places like China, Egypt, Iceland and Italy

Advances in Surgery

  • Doctors realized cleaning wounds was essential to prevent infection
  • Penicillin was greatly useful during the war to prevent gangrene
  • Harold Gillies and TP Kilner shared their experiences of facial injuries during WWI and plastic sugery
  • Archibald McIndoe pioneered burn treatment and skin grafts for pilots, using saline baths & skin grafts
  • McIndoe's patients formed the "Guinea Pig Club," emphasizing positive attitudes and community support to cope with disfigurement and psychological trauma.
  • Dwight Harken developed a technique to remove bullets and shrapnel from the heart.
  • The blood transfusion service became more organized, with Dr. Janet Vaughan and the Army Blood Supply Depot establishing blood banks.
  • Over 700,000 people gave blood during the war
  • Development of blood plasma and the rhesus blood system made transfusions safer.
  • A tetanus vaccine was developed, proving effective during the Battle of Dunkirk in 1940
  • Understanding and treatment of PTSD improved, with 18 psychiatric hospitals established for servicemen.

Development of the National Health Service (NHS)

  • The Emergency Medical Service (1939) coordinated hospitals and health care
  • William Beveridge's 1942 report identified "want, disease, ignorance, squalor, and idleness" as key problems, advocating for state support.
  • The Beveridge report was hugely popular
  • The National Insurance Act, 1946, provided pensions, maternity benefits, and payments for sickness and unemployment.
  • The National Health Service Act, 1946, established the NHS, providing comprehensive care from birth to old age, funded by taxes.
  • Aneurin Bevan set up the NHS
  • Bevan addressed opposition from doctors by allowing private practices and paying GPs per patient.
  • 90% of doctors enrolled to be part of the NHS when it launched
  • The NHS provided free services paid for by taxes
  • The NHS significantly improved access to healthcare, especially for women and children previously unprotected by the National Insurance system.
  • The combination of the National Insurance Act and the NHS created a welfare state, offering government support at every life stage.

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Description

This lesson covers the history of penicillin, from Alexander Fleming's initial discovery to its development and use in treating infections. It highlights key figures like Fleming, Domagk, Florey, and Chain, detailing their contributions to the development and testing of this life-saving antibiotic. The content also touches the ethical decisions surrounding its patenting and distribution.

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