Peace Studies: Conflict Definition, Causes, and Types

Definition of Conflict

• Origin of conflict: from Latin word "confligere", meaning to strike together
• Technical definition: "opposition among social entities directed against one another" (Wright, 1990)
• Key aspect: opposition, as opposed to cooperation
• Implies that conflict arises when people or entities do not cooperate, including with the environment

Objectives of Conflict Transformation

• Possess good understanding, knowledge, and application of conflict transformation
• Transform conflicts into basis of future cooperation among social entities

Types of Conflict

• Adversarial relationship involving at least two individuals or collective actors over a range of issues (e.g. resources, power, status, values, goals)
• Expected outcomes: victory, defeat, domination, surrender, discrimination, neutralization, conversion, coercion, injury, or destruction
• May also involve resolution, settlement, termination, stalemate, or transformation of the conflict

Definitions of Conflict

• Struggle over values or claims to status, power, and scarce resources (Coser, 1956)
• Social situation in which at least two parties strive for goals that are incompatible or employ incompatible means to achieve a goal (Schmid, 2000)
• Contests, competitions, disputes, and tensions between social forces (Schmid, 2000)
• Goal-directed activity designed to improve the position of one party at the expense of the other (Schmid, 2000)
• Perceived divergence of interests or a belief that the parties' current aspirations cannot be achieved simultaneously (Schmid, 2000)
• Escalated competition between two or more parties, each aiming to gain advantage (Schmid, 2000)
• Perceived incompatibility between two or more people or groups, including incompatibility of needs, interests, values, or aims (Lund, 1997)

Conflict Theories from Sociological Perspective

• Focus on power differentials, such as class conflict, and emphasize a materialist interpretation of history
• Emphasize dialectical method of analysis, critical stance toward existing social arrangements, and political program of revolution or reform

Karl Marx's Theory of Conflict

• Based on dialectical materialist account of history
• Posits that capitalism, like previous socioeconomic systems, will inevitably produce internal tensions leading to its own destruction
• Advocates proletarian revolution and freedom from the ruling classes
• Critiques political economy and false consciousness

Max Weber's Theory of Conflict

• Sees conflict as contingent on the emergence of "charismatic leaders" who can mobilize subordinates
• Posits that subordinates are more likely to pursue conflict with superordinates when they withdraw legitimacy from political authority

Conflict-Theory Model of Dahrendorf

• Views conflict as necessary for achieving social goals
• Sees conflict as productive and constructive
• Introduces the concept of exogenous and endogenous conflicts

Pluralist Perspective of Conflict

• Views conflict as having a constructive contribution towards a healthy industrial order
• Believes that conflict can resolve discontent, reduce tension, clarify power relations, and adjust the industrial structure### Pluralist Theory
• Pluralists believe that different and divergent pressure groups can be harmonized through continuous negotiation, concession, and compromises to achieve peaceful social and political changes.
• Effective communication is essential in preventing and managing industrial conflicts, which involves clear communication, understanding, and continuous dialogues among differing groups.

Structural-Functional Theory

• Talcott Parsons champions the Structural-Functional Theory, which asserts that individuals will adjust to a given structure in an organization, institution, or society.
• Any change in the structure can cause conflict, which should be minimized to maintain stability and equilibrium.
• The theory views conflict as dysfunctional, abnormal, and a disease that can be endemic to a society.
• It focuses on maintaining the state of equilibrium and collaboration in the organization.

Assumptions on Ethnicity and Conflict

• Ethnicity has been viewed as a group setting associated with the idea of nationhood.
• Instrumentalists' view of ethnicity and ethnic conflicts holds that ethnicity is a consciously crafted ideological creation, and ethnic conflicts result from the manipulation of the elite.
• Thomson defines an ethnic group as a community of people who have a conviction that they have a common identity and common fate based on issues of origin, kinship, ties, traditions, cultural uniqueness, shared history, and possibly a shared language.
• Bamass argues that ethnicity and nationalism are not "givens" but are social and political constructions created by elites to protect their wellbeing or gain political and economic advantage.

Assumptions on Culture and Conflict

• Culture refers to the sum-total of all human existence, including norms, values, traditions, beliefs, customs, languages, patterns of behavior, art, music, food, and mode of dressing.
• Glen Fisher characterizes two kinds of societies: those based on achievement and those on ascription.
• Weaver likens culture to an iceberg, with an external culture that is explicitly learned and conscious, and an internal culture that is implicitly learned and difficult to change.
• Geert Hofstede describes four dimensions of culture relevant to conflict transformation: power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity.
• John Paul Lederach posits that social conflict emerges and develops based on the meaning and interpretation people attach to actions and events.

Role Theories of Turner

• Role is defined as a set of activities associated with a position in an organization, including potential behaviors and not only those of the incumbent.
• Turner's strategy is to use propositions from research studies to build more formal and abstract theoretical statements.
• Some of the main tendency propositions include:
  • Roles emerge and persist through interaction.
  • Roles are assigned the character of legitimate expectations and are seen as the appropriate way to behave in a situation.
  • Roles tend to be complementary to others, and this operates to regularize interaction among complementary roles.

Conflict Cycle and Stages of Conflict

• The conflict cycle consists of:
  1. Latent phase: a conflict is dormant and barely expressed.
  2. Manifest phase: conflicting parties express their demands and grievances openly.
  3. Violent phase: direct physical attacks and confrontations lead to bloodshed and loss of life.
  4. Escalation phase: violence breeds further violence and produces an escalatory momentum.
  5. Containment phase: escalation comes to a halt, and there is hope for negotiations and mediation.
  6. Mitigated phase: the conflict behavior and attitude have been significantly changed with reduced or less violence.
  7. Resolution phase: the basic causes of conflict are addressed, and post-conflict peace-building is achieved.

Note: I've used bullet points to break down the text into smaller, more manageable chunks, and focused on key facts and context to help students understand the material.### Importance of External Actors in Conflict Resolution

• Provision of various forms of assistance and support to emerging civil society after conflict resolution
• Support for programs on disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of former combatants, including child soldiers

Conflict Handling Styles

• Two basic dimensions: assertiveness and cooperativeness
• Five conflict handling styles:
  • Dominating/competing: high assertiveness, low cooperativeness
  • Accommodating: low assertiveness, high cooperativeness
  • Avoiding: low assertiveness, low cooperativeness
  • Collaborating: high assertiveness, high cooperativeness
  • Compromising: moderate assertiveness, moderate cooperativeness

Model Two: Approaches to Conflict

• Three classifications:
  1. Avoidance/denial: avoiding conflict, pretending it doesn't exist
  2. Confrontation/fighting: using power to resolve conflict
  3. Problem-solving: collaborative approach to resolve conflict, focusing on mutual respect and understanding

Peace Education and Peace-Building

• Peace education: a process of imparting skills, attitudes, and knowledge to promote peace and non-violence
• Goals of peace education:
  • Promoting understanding and respect for all cultures and peoples
  • Enhancing communication and conflict resolution skills
  • Fostering a sense of global interdependence and cooperation
  • Encouraging the development of a peaceful and non-violent lifestyle
• Peace education covers topics such as anti-racism, conflict resolution, multiculturalism, and cross-cultural training

Role of Peace Educators

• Peace educators: facilitating a process of teaching encounters that draw from people's desire for peace and non-violence
• Tasks of peace educators:
  • Encouraging commitment to peace and non-violence
  • Informing students about the consequences of war and social injustice
  • Informing students about the value of peaceful and just social structures
  • Encouraging students to imagine a peaceful future
  • Caring for students and encouraging them to care for others

Methods of Achieving Post-Conflict Sustainable Peace-building

• Understanding peace building: a wide range of activities associated with capacity building, reconciliation, and societal transformation
• Approaches to peace building:
  • Capacity building
  • Reconciliation
  • Societal transformation