Peace of Westphalia and State System

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

• A series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).
• Established the modern international state system based on sovereignty.
• Formalized the principle of non-interference in other states' affairs.
• Marked the beginning of the current system of nation-states.
• Influences modern international law and diplomacy.
• The concept of sovereignty today means that foreign intervention in civil wars (e.g., Syria) is controversial.

International State System

• A system where sovereign states interact under rules and norms.
• Based on territorial integrity and diplomatic recognition.
• Reinforced by treaties, international organizations, and laws.
• Defines how states interact and resolve conflicts.
• Shapes trade agreements, war, and diplomacy.
• The United Nations helps regulate interactions between states to maintain order

State

• A political entity with a defined territory, population, and government.
• Has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force (Max Weber).
• Can be unitary (centralized power) or federal (power shared across levels).
• The main actor in global politics.
• Determines laws, policies, and governance.
• The United States is a federal state, while France is a unitary state

Sovereignty

• The authority of a state to govern itself without external interference.
• Includes internal sovereignty (control within borders) and external sovereignty (recognition by other states).
• Evolved with the Treaty of Westphalia and remains central in global politics.
• The basis of international relations and determines the legitimacy of governments.
• Sovereignty is often argued over, such as in cases of humanitarian intervention or separatist movements (e.g., Kosovo, Taiwan).
• Countries respect each other's borders and not use military force to change them

Empire

• A large political unit extending power over multiple territories.
• Can be direct (Roman Empire) or indirect (British Empire through colonies).
• Often built through military conquest, economic control, or cultural influence.
• Shaped modern political borders and economic inequalities.
• The decline of empires led to new states and conflicts.
• The Ottoman Empire controlled parts of Europe, Africa, and the Middle East until WWI

Imperialism

• A policy of expanding power through territorial or economic control.
• Driven by political, economic, and ideological motives (e.g., the "civilizing mission").
• Can be formal (direct rule) or informal (economic influence).
• Led to resistance movements and independence struggles.
• Still affects economic and political structures today.
• The British Raj in India (1858-1947) exemplified formal imperialism

Colonization and Decolonization

• Colonization is the process of establishing control over foreign lands.
• Decolonization is the process of former colonies gaining independence.
• Many decolonized states faced economic struggles and neocolonialism.
• Colonial histories shape current economic and political inequalities.
• Decolonization led to new nations but also conflicts (e.g., partition of India).
• Algeria fought a war of independence against France (1954-1962).

Mercantilism (merchant capitalism)

• Economic system where states accumulate wealth through trade surplus.
• Encouraged high tariffs, monopolies, and protectionist policies.
• Replaced by capitalism and free trade in the 19th century.
• Drove colonial expansion and global trade networks.
• Still influences economic policies today (e.g., trade wars).
• The British Navigation Acts controlled colonial trade for economic gain.

The Great World Wars (World War 1 and 2)

• WWI (1914-1918) caused by nationalism, alliances, and imperial rivalries.
• WWII (1939-1945) driven by fascism, expansionism, and unresolved WWI tensions.
• Led to massive global changes (new borders, international institutions).
• Reshaped international relations, leading to the UN and Cold War.
• Created new global power structures (e.g., U.S. and USSR as superpowers).
• The creation of the United Nations in 1945 aimed to prevent future conflicts.

Cold War

• Political, ideological, and military tension between the U.S. and USSR (1947-1991).
• Marked by nuclear arms race, proxy wars, and ideological competition.
• Ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
• Shaped modern global alliances (e.g., NATO, Warsaw Pact).
• Influences contemporary U.S.-Russia and U.S.-China relations.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) nearly led to nuclear war

Popular Sovereignty

• The idea that government power comes from the people.
• Central to democracy and republicanism.
• Opposed to monarchy and authoritarian rule.
• Basis for modern democratic movements and constitutions.
• Challenges authoritarian regimes.
• The French Revolution (1789) was driven by popular sovereignty against monarchy

Self-Determination

• The right of peoples to choose their own government and political status.
• Recognized in international law (e.g., UN Charter).
• Often linked to nationalist movements and independence struggles.
• Drives movements for autonomy and independence.
• Source of international conflicts (e.g., Palestine, Tibet).
• Scotland’s independence referendum (2014) reflects self-determination in practice

Nation-State

• A political unit where the nation (cultural group) and state (political entity) coincide.
• National identity is tied to political sovereignty.
• Can be civic (inclusive) or ethnic (exclusive).
• Shapes nationalism and state legitimacy.
• Affects conflicts over national identity and borders.
• Japan is a nation-state with a strong sense of cultural unity.

Civic and Ethnic Nationalism

• Civic nationalism is based on shared political values (e.g., U.S., France).
• Ethnic nationalism is based on shared ancestry and culture (e.g., Germany, Israel).
• Ethnic nationalism can lead to exclusion and xenophobia.
• Defines different types of nationalism in global politics.
• Ethnic nationalism can fuel conflicts and discrimination.
• The Rwandan Genocide (1994) was driven by ethnic nationalism.

Making Nations as ‘Imagined Communities’

• Benedict Anderson's concept states nations are socially constructed.
• People feel connected despite never meeting most members.
• Media, education, and symbols create national identity.
• Explains how national identity is shaped.
• Helps understand nationalism in modern politics.
• U.S. national identity is reinforced through media, education, and patriotic symbols.

White Nationalism

• A form of ethnic nationalism that promotes white racial superiority.
• Often linked to racism, xenophobia, and far-right movements.
• Seeks to maintain white dominance in society and politics.
• Drives racial discrimination and extremist movements.
• Influences immigration policies and social tensions.
• The 2017 Charlottesville rally in the U.S. was organized by white nationalists

Populism and Populist Nationalism

• Populism claims to represent the common people against elites.
• Populist nationalism combines this with national identity, often opposing immigration and globalization.
• It can be left-wing (e.g., economic populism) or right-wing (e.g., anti-immigrant nationalism).
• Populism reshapes politics by challenging traditional parties and institutions.
• It can lead to democratic backsliding (e.g., leaders consolidating power by attacking the media, judiciary, or opposition).
• Donald Trump’s “America First” policies and Brexit are examples of populist nationalism, emphasizing sovereignty and anti-elitism

Borders (Different Types)

• Political borders separate states and governments.
• Economic borders divide rich and poor regions.
• Cultural borders are based on language, religion, or ethnicity.
• Borders can be hard (strictly controlled) or soft (fluid movement).
• Borders influence migration, trade, and national identity.
• Borders can be sources of conflict (e.g., Israel-Palestine border).
• The U.S.-Mexico border is a politically and economically significant division

Migrant Versus Refugee

• Migrant moves voluntarily for economic, social, or personal reasons.
• Refugee is forced to flee due to persecution, war, or disaster.
• Refugees are protected under international law, while migrants are not.
• Defines legal and humanitarian obligations.
• Affects global immigration policies.
• Syrian refugees fled to Europe due to the civil war, while economic migrants move for job opportunities

The International Refugee Regime

• System of laws, norms, and institutions protecting refugees.
• Includes the 1951 Refugee Convention and UNHCR.
• Based on principles like non-refoulement (no forced return).
• Ensures refugee protection and state responsibilities.
• Helps manage global refugee crises.
• The European refugee crisis (2015) tested the refugee regime as millions fled Syria.

Regime

• A system of governance within a state.
• Can be democratic, authoritarian, or hybrid.
• International regimes refer to global rules (e.g., climate agreements).
• Determines political stability and governance quality.
• Affects international cooperation and law.
• North Korea has an authoritarian regime, while Canada has a democratic regime

International Organization

• Institutions that facilitate cooperation between states.
• Can be intergovernmental (e.g., UN, WTO) or nongovernmental (e.g., Red Cross, Amnesty International).
• Set norms, resolve conflicts, and provide humanitarian aid.
• Regulate global trade, peacekeeping, and human rights.
• Influence state policies.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) coordinated global responses to COVID-19

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

• A UN agency protecting refugees and displaced persons.
• Provides legal aid, shelter, and resettlement assistance.
• Upholds the 1951 Refugee Convention.
• Critical for managing global refugee crises.
• Ensures international legal obligations are met.
• UNHCR aided Rohingya refugees fleeing Myanmar to Bangladesh

1951 Refugee Charter and 1967 Protocol

• Defines refugee rights and state responsibilities.
• Originally limited to European refugees after WWII but expanded in 1967.
• Establishes non-refoulement as a key principle.
• Basis of international refugee protection.
• Guides asylum policies worldwide.
• The EU and Canada use these principles to assess asylum claims

Non-Refoulement

• A principle in international law that prevents sending refugees back to danger.
• Part of the 1951 Refugee Convention and human rights law.
• Applies even if a country hasn’t signed the convention.
• Protects refugees from persecution and harm.
• Prevents human rights violations. -In 2021, the UK’s deportation plan to Rwanda raised concerns about violating non-refoulement.

The Bretton Woods System

• A post-WWII economic system (1944) for global financial stability.
• Created the IMF, World Bank, and fixed exchange rate system.
• Collapsed in the 1970s due to inflation and U.S. dollar issues.
• Shaped modern financial institutions.
• Basis of global capitalism.
• The IMF still provides financial aid to struggling economies today

Political and Economic Liberalism

• Political liberalism focuses on democracy, individual rights, and rule of law.
• Economic liberalism promotes free markets, private property, and minimal government intervention.
• Associated with thinkers like John Locke and Adam Smith.
• Forms the foundation of Western democracies and capitalism.
• Drives globalization and trade policies.
• The EU’s single market is based on economic liberalism

Neoliberalism

• A revival of economic liberalism in the 1980s.
• Emphasizes privatization, deregulation, and free trade.
• Promoted by Reagan (U.S.) and Thatcher (UK).
• Increased global trade but worsened inequality.
• Led to the privatization of public services.
• Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPs) imposed neoliberal reforms on developing countries.

Washington Consensus

• A set of neoliberal policies imposed by the IMF and World Bank in the 1990s.
• Required privatization, trade liberalization, and austerity measures.
• Critics argue it hurt developing countries.
• Shaped economic policies in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.
• Led to protests against global financial institutions.
• Argentina’s financial crisis (2001) was linked to IMF austerity measures

Deglobalization

• A reaction against globalization.
• Focuses on local economies, protectionism, and reducing foreign dependence.
• Seen in Brexit, U.S.-China trade war, and reshoring jobs.
• Affects international trade and supply chains.
• Can lead to political instability and economic shifts.
• Brexit (2016) was a deglobalization movement against EU integration

Commodity Fetishism

• A Marxist concept where goods are valued for their market price, ignoring labor conditions.
• Hides exploitation in global supply chains.
• Encourages consumerism over social justice.
• Explains how global capitalism disconnects consumers from labor exploitation.
• Basis of critiques against fast fashion, sweatshops, and unethical consumption.
• People buy Nike shoes without thinking about the exploited factory workers who make them

Rana Plaza

• A Bangladeshi garment factory that collapsed in 2013, killing 1,134 workers.
• Exposed unsafe labor conditions in global supply chains.
• Highlighted problems with fast fashion and corporate responsibility.
• Led to improved labor laws and pressure on companies.
• Raised awareness about worker exploitation in developing countries.
• Joe Fresh faced backlash for sourcing from unsafe factories

Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPS)

• Economic reform programs the IMF and World Bank impose on developing countries.
• Requires privatization, austerity (spending cuts), and trade liberalization in exchange for loans.
• Based on neoliberal economic policies (similar to the Washington Consensus).
• Aimed to reduce debt and boost economic growth, but often worsened poverty and inequality.
• Led to job losses, weakened public services (healthcare, education), and economic instability.
• Ghana and Kenya faced protests in the 1980s-90s after SAPs raised food prices, cut social services, and privatized industries

Export Processing Zones

• Special economic areas in developing countries designed to attract foreign investment.
• Offer tax breaks, relaxed labor laws, and duty-free imports/exports.
• Often criticized for poor working conditions and labor exploitation.
• Boosts economic growth but often at the cost of workers’ rights.
• Encourages outsourcing and cheap labor production for global brands.
• China’s Shenzhen EPZ became a major manufacturing hub for electronics and textiles

Feminization of Labor

• The increasing employment of women, often in low-paid, insecure jobs.
• Common in garment, electronics, and service industries.
• Linked to neoliberal economic policies and labor market changes.
• Highlights gender inequality in wages, rights, and working conditions.
• Connects globalization to gendered labor exploitation.
• Bangladesh’s garment industry relies on female workers earning low wages in sweatshops.

Gendered Division of Labor

• The historical and cultural separation of work roles based on gender.
• Women are often placed in caregiving, textile, and low-wage service jobs.
• Men are dominant in high-paid technical and managerial positions.
• Explains wage gaps and barriers to women’s economic mobility.
• Shapes labor market policies and workplace dynamics.
• Nurses and teachers (mostly women) earn less than engineers and CEOs (mostly men)

Informalization of the Economy

• Growth of unregulated, low-wage work outside formal labor markets.
• Includes street vending, domestic work, and gig economy jobs (Uber, delivery work).
• Lacks labor protections, benefits, or stability.
• Expands job opportunities but increases economic uncertainty and exploitation.
• Weakens labor rights and social protections.
• India’s informal sector employs millions in street vending, construction, and domestic work

Fast Fashion

• A cheap, mass-production model in the fashion industry.
• Prioritizes speed and low costs over sustainability and worker rights.
• Major brands like Zara, H&M, and Shein are key players.
• Drives overconsumption and environmental harm.
• Exploits low-wage workers in developing countries.
• Shein and H&M face criticism for exploiting sweatshop labor and creating textile waste.

The Spector of Globalization - Paul, T. V.

• Globalization persists in a modified form despite rising nationalism, protectionism, and geopolitical tensions
• Market expansion often triggers counter-reactions, demanding social protection and safeguards against negative impacts
• Even with nationalist policies, countries engage in global cooperation, highlighting the need for international collaboration to tackle shared problems
• Post-Cold War, a boom in economic expansion and trade liberalization occurred, but events like the 2008 financial crisis and COVID-19 led to skepticism about globalization
• Countries are adopting more nationalist policies, challenging global trade norms
• China continues to dominate global trade but with increasing regional trade agreements, particularly in Asia, driving growth outside U.S. involvement
• Tensions challenge trade, but multinational corporations maintain global connectivity
• Growing inequalities due to neoliberal policies have sparked backlash, while rising nationalism and populism post challenges to democratic norms but globalization persists

Globalization and its discontents: Why there’s a backlash and how it needs to change - John Rennie

• The election of Donald Trump, Brexit, and the rise of nationalism in Europe demonstrates a backlash against globalization
• Voters have rolled back economic, political, and cultural globalization due to concerns over job security and immigration
• The post-World War II Bretton Woods Agreement established the global economic order and the IMF and World Bank to promot global trade and peace.
• Free capital movement across borders deindustrialized the West, allowing China to see significant growth while labor remained fixed
• Trade agreements like NAFTA and the creation of the EU led to cultural and economic challenges like immigration concerns and the rise of nationalism and religious fundamentalism
• Cultural clashes, fears of losing national identity, and heightened tensions over immigration resulted from this shift
• Political leaders gained support by exploiting fears, marking nationalism as a key force
• Globalization's should be shaped to ensure fairer and more inclusive outcomes for justice, sustainability, and peace, collectively addressing global inequalities

The History of Global Politics - Heywood, A. and B. Whitham (chapter 2)

• The 'modern' world was shaped by developments, from the first human societies to the rise of ancient civilizations, and from industrialization and empire to the dawn of 'mass societies'
• The Second World War was caused by First World War peace settlements, the global economic crisis of the 1930s, the programme of Nazi expansion (Hitler), and the growth of Japanese expansionism in Asia
• 1945 initiated decolonization and the collapse of European empires and the Cold War, which gave rise to bipolar tensions between an increasingly US-dominated West and Soviet-dominated East
• Cold War bipolarity ended through the Eastern European revolutions of 1989–91, which witnessed the collapse of the Soviet Union due to Soviet-style communism's structural weakness, Gorbachev’s reform process, and broader economic and cultural globalization implications
• Key global transformations of the twenty-first century include global power balances shifting within the global economy due to the rise of other global powers such as China after the postwar world order saw American-led economic globalization
• Western ‘liberal’ predictions about the post-Cold War period confounded by events, ranging from the 9/11 attacks, to the rise of anti-liberal politics, and the re-emergence of multipolarity
• Important transnational social movements and multipolarity increasingly shape global politics, alongside histories of colonialism and imperial domination

Nations and Nationalisms in a Global Age - Heywood, A. and B. Whitham (chapter 8)

• Nationalism is a complex political phenomenon due to blended cultural, political, objective, and subjective characteristics,
• It has been a cross-cutting ideology, associated with a wide range of doctrines, movements, and causes
• National identity is rooted in cultural heritage and language that predates statehood or independence, according to primordialism
• National identity is forged in response to changing historical circumstances linked to industrialization, according to modernism
• Liberating nationalism reconfigures the world into nation states, based on self-determination
• Oppressive nationalism leads to aggression, militarism, and war
• International migration weakens nationalism, which has led to hybridity and cultural mixing in societies
• Migratory flows lead to formation of transnational communities and diasporas that serve as alternative to nations
• Resilience has been demonstrated by nations and nationalism through underpinning state self-assertion and transformations challenged or resisted through globalization
• Revived through cultural and ethnic nationalism, including white nationalism, in a ‘de-ideologized’ post-Cold War period

In The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World - de Haas, H., S. Castles and M. J. Miller

• Migration has become a key political issue impacting countries of origin and reception
• Elections are shaped by growing Latino voter influence in the U.S., while anti-immigrant growth is seen in European countries
• Stricter immigration policies and rising hostility have resulted from economic crises and political tensions
• Integration and exploitation challenges rose as ethnic diversity increased due to increasing migration levels
• Security and cohesion are threatened when immigrants protest exclusion
• State sovereignty, security, and national identity are impacted by the political significance of migration, which is linked to conflict
• Global inequalities, political conflict, and economic opportunities drive migration
• Skilled and unskilled workers are moved globally due to migration patterns
• Oceania, North America, and Europe see migrant populations grow while Africa, Asia, and Latin America are stable or declining
• Conflict, persecution, and disasters drive forced migration
• Asia grew, especially after invasions, while refugee numbers decreased in Africa
• Countries are sending and receiving migrants in increasingly complex patterns
• The Arab Spring caused migration, but most stayed in neighboring countries instead of moving to Europe

How is the world organized economically? - Peterson, Spike, V.

• Economics studies the production and distribution of goods and wealth
• Feudalism and mercantilism influenced early markets, which were embedded in social life
• Power shifted to industrial capitalists due to state policies, technological advances, and industrialization
• Modern economics were shaped by Adam Smith’s ideas on free markets, but ignored social impacts and exploitation
• Large portions of global output is represented by informal economic activities, which challenged traditional economic measures
• Activities have increased and reduced tax revenues and worker's rights, which benefited elites while harming majority
• Jobs are casualized, lower-paid, and avoid unionization due to flexibilization
• Women are disproportionately affected by lower wages and insecure jobs due to feminization
• Profits are prioritized over workers’welfare due to neoliberalism
• Market decisions take precedent over government regulations due to neoliberalism
• Workers adapt to a lack of regulation and grow as workers out of necessity, not opportunity
• Capitalisms depends on especially women’s unpaid work to maintain profit
• Women and marginalized populations that are excluded from neoliberal benefits bear the burden
• The "common sense" of neoliberalism believes that there is not other option despite the growing inequalities, social exclusion, and reduced democratic participation, which fosters conflict and obscuring realities faced by marginalized communities

Women’s Labor Is Never Cheap: Gendering Global Blue Jeans and Bankers - Enloe, C.

• The Rana Plaza and Tazreen Fashions disasters exposed unsafe working conditions for low-waged women garment workers producing clothes for global brands in Bangladesh
• Complex layers of subcontractors, local corruption, and inadequate safety measures drive the global garment industry as multinational corporations keep costs low
• Profit outweighs worker safety in global awareness, forcing flawed monitoring systems due to multinational prioritizations
• Dependence on low-wage female labor by Bangladesh as investment is low, which contributes to repeated tragedies
• Women's labor is feminized in labor that results in low wages
• It is important to make women's experiences visible to understand the dynamics of the workplace
• Strategic decisions on gender and labor make women easily cheapened
• They can easily exploit factories that aren't good, contributing to decline of light industries and leading to women struggling.
• 1985 Mexico City earthquake killed 1,000 workers. Worker’s became unemployed. Women fought for labor rights and childcare but NAFTA put an end to their efforts
• Women migrated that increased China's economic growth. They also fought for better conditions causing brands to increase wages