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Questions and Answers
What are the two types of weathering often discussed?
What are the two types of weathering often discussed?
What is another name for chemical weathering?
What is another name for chemical weathering?
Decomposition
Biological weathering can be caused by animals and plants.
Biological weathering can be caused by animals and plants.
True
Which of these are examples of physical weathering?
Which of these are examples of physical weathering?
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What is the name given to a large intrusive body of igneous rock that is buried deep underneath the Earth's surface?
What is the name given to a large intrusive body of igneous rock that is buried deep underneath the Earth's surface?
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What type of weathering occurs when water seeps into cracks in rock and then freezes?
What type of weathering occurs when water seeps into cracks in rock and then freezes?
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Chemical weathering occurs when chemical reactions happen within the environment.
Chemical weathering occurs when chemical reactions happen within the environment.
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What is the name of the chemical reaction that occurs when elements combine with oxygen?
What is the name of the chemical reaction that occurs when elements combine with oxygen?
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What is the name of the chemical reaction that occurs when water reacts with another substance to form two or more new substances?
What is the name of the chemical reaction that occurs when water reacts with another substance to form two or more new substances?
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What is the name of the weak acid that forms when carbon dioxide dissolves in water?
What is the name of the weak acid that forms when carbon dioxide dissolves in water?
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What mineral is often dissolved by carbonic acid?
What mineral is often dissolved by carbonic acid?
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Organic acids can be produced by living organisms such as lichens and mosses.
Organic acids can be produced by living organisms such as lichens and mosses.
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What is the name of the acidic rain that forms when nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide combine with water in the atmosphere?
What is the name of the acidic rain that forms when nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide combine with water in the atmosphere?
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What is the name of the internal geomorphic process that involves changes in the configuration of the Earth's surface?
What is the name of the internal geomorphic process that involves changes in the configuration of the Earth's surface?
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What is the name of the molten and semi-molten rock mixture found under the surface of the Earth?
What is the name of the molten and semi-molten rock mixture found under the surface of the Earth?
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What is the property of magma that describes a fluid?
What is the property of magma that describes a fluid?
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What is the name given to the areas where magma often collects in magma chambers?
What is the name given to the areas where magma often collects in magma chambers?
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Extrusive igneous rocks cool quickly and often have fine grain sizes.
Extrusive igneous rocks cool quickly and often have fine grain sizes.
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Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly and often have coarse grain sizes.
Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly and often have coarse grain sizes.
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Which type of magma has the highest silicon dioxide content?
Which type of magma has the highest silicon dioxide content?
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Which type of magma has the lowest iron, magnesium, and calcium content?
Which type of magma has the lowest iron, magnesium, and calcium content?
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What is the name given to the process by which only some parts of a rock melt?
What is the name given to the process by which only some parts of a rock melt?
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Decompression melting occurs when the pressure on a rock is reduced, which allows it to melt.
Decompression melting occurs when the pressure on a rock is reduced, which allows it to melt.
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What type of plate boundary is associated with decompression melting?
What type of plate boundary is associated with decompression melting?
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Flux melting occurs when water or carbon dioxide is added to a rock.
Flux melting occurs when water or carbon dioxide is added to a rock.
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What type of plate boundary is associated with flux melting?
What type of plate boundary is associated with flux melting?
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When magma cools, crystals start to form as the magma begins to solidify.
When magma cools, crystals start to form as the magma begins to solidify.
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Intrusive igneous rocks can be classified as dikes and xenoliths.
Intrusive igneous rocks can be classified as dikes and xenoliths.
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What is the name of the process by which rocks are bent or folded as a result of compressional stress?
What is the name of the process by which rocks are bent or folded as a result of compressional stress?
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What is the name given to a fold that arches upward, with the oldest rocks at the center?
What is the name given to a fold that arches upward, with the oldest rocks at the center?
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What is the name given to a fold that bends downward, with the youngest rocks at the center
What is the name given to a fold that bends downward, with the youngest rocks at the center
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What is the term used to describe a fracture in a rock that has occurred due to stress?
What is the term used to describe a fracture in a rock that has occurred due to stress?
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What is the name given to the surface that represents the fracture between two sections of rock in a fault line?
What is the name given to the surface that represents the fracture between two sections of rock in a fault line?
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What is the name given to the block of rock that lies beneath the fault plane?
What is the name given to the block of rock that lies beneath the fault plane?
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What is the name given to the block of rock that lies above the fault plane?
What is the name given to the block of rock that lies above the fault plane?
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What type of fault occurs when the hanging wall moves upwards?
What type of fault occurs when the hanging wall moves upwards?
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What type of fault occurs when fault blocks move horizontally in opposite directions?
What type of fault occurs when fault blocks move horizontally in opposite directions?
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Conduction is one of the ways that heat energy is redistributed within the Earth.
Conduction is one of the ways that heat energy is redistributed within the Earth.
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The Earth's internal heat is a vital component of the Earth system.
The Earth's internal heat is a vital component of the Earth system.
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What is the name of the process by which the Earth was formed from the gradual accumulation of dust, gas, and rocky debris?
What is the name of the process by which the Earth was formed from the gradual accumulation of dust, gas, and rocky debris?
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The Earth's primordial heat is a remnant of energy from its formation process.
The Earth's primordial heat is a remnant of energy from its formation process.
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Radioactive decay is a source of internal heat within the Earth.
Radioactive decay is a source of internal heat within the Earth.
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Gravitational pressure doesn't affect the Earth's internal heat.
Gravitational pressure doesn't affect the Earth's internal heat.
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The Earth's internal heat is primarily from its core and mantle.
The Earth's internal heat is primarily from its core and mantle.
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Convection is a process that involves the movement of fluids due to differences in density.
Convection is a process that involves the movement of fluids due to differences in density.
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Thermal radiation is another process by which heat can be transferred within the Earth, by electromagnetic waves.
Thermal radiation is another process by which heat can be transferred within the Earth, by electromagnetic waves.
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Metamorphism is a geologic process that involves changes in the composition, texture, and structure of rocks due to intense heat and pressure.
Metamorphism is a geologic process that involves changes in the composition, texture, and structure of rocks due to intense heat and pressure.
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The intensity of metamorphism depends on the depth of the rocks.
The intensity of metamorphism depends on the depth of the rocks.
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Metamorphism can be caused by the introduction of chemically active fluids.
Metamorphism can be caused by the introduction of chemically active fluids.
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Contact metamorphism is a type of metamorphism that occurs in areas where surrounding rocks are exposed to heat from magma intrusions.
Contact metamorphism is a type of metamorphism that occurs in areas where surrounding rocks are exposed to heat from magma intrusions.
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Regional metamorphism generally occurs in areas where rocks are subjected to intense heat and pressure over a large area.
Regional metamorphism generally occurs in areas where rocks are subjected to intense heat and pressure over a large area.
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Shock metamorphism occurs when rocks are subjected to extreme pressure and heat from events like meteorite impacts.
Shock metamorphism occurs when rocks are subjected to extreme pressure and heat from events like meteorite impacts.
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Burial metamorphism occurs in deep sedimentary basins where rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures for extended periods of time.
Burial metamorphism occurs in deep sedimentary basins where rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures for extended periods of time.
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Stratification is the process by which layers of sediment are deposited and eventually solidified into rock.
Stratification is the process by which layers of sediment are deposited and eventually solidified into rock.
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Steno's Law of Stratigraphy helps geologists understand the relative ages of rock layers.
Steno's Law of Stratigraphy helps geologists understand the relative ages of rock layers.
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The Law of Original Horizontality states that layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally.
The Law of Original Horizontality states that layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally.
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The Law of Superposition states that the oldest rock layers are found at the bottom of a sequence, while the youngest layers are found at the top.
The Law of Superposition states that the oldest rock layers are found at the bottom of a sequence, while the youngest layers are found at the top.
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The Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships states that an intrusion of rock, or a fault, must be younger than the rocks it cuts through.
The Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships states that an intrusion of rock, or a fault, must be younger than the rocks it cuts through.
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The Law of Lateral Continuity states that rock layers extend outwards in all directions until they encounter another solid body.
The Law of Lateral Continuity states that rock layers extend outwards in all directions until they encounter another solid body.
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Relative dating methods determine the numerical age of a rock or fossil, while absolute dating methods determine the relative age of a rock or fossil.
Relative dating methods determine the numerical age of a rock or fossil, while absolute dating methods determine the relative age of a rock or fossil.
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Which of these methods can be used for relative dating?
Which of these methods can be used for relative dating?
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Index fossils are fossils of plants or animals that lived during a specific geologic period.
Index fossils are fossils of plants or animals that lived during a specific geologic period.
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Fluorine dating is a technique used to determine the amount of fluorine absorbed by bones from groundwater.
Fluorine dating is a technique used to determine the amount of fluorine absorbed by bones from groundwater.
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Radiometric dating is a technique used to determine the age of a sample by measuring the amount of a particular radioactive isotope present in the sample.
Radiometric dating is a technique used to determine the age of a sample by measuring the amount of a particular radioactive isotope present in the sample.
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Amino acid dating is a technique used to determine the age of a sample by measuring the amount of change in the protein content of a biological sample over time.
Amino acid dating is a technique used to determine the age of a sample by measuring the amount of change in the protein content of a biological sample over time.
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Dendrochronology is a technique used to determine the age of trees by counting the number of annual growth rings.
Dendrochronology is a technique used to determine the age of trees by counting the number of annual growth rings.
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Living fossils are organisms that have existed for a long period of time without undergoing significant changes.
Living fossils are organisms that have existed for a long period of time without undergoing significant changes.
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The geologic time scale divides the history of Earth into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
The geologic time scale divides the history of Earth into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.
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The Archean Eon saw the first signs of life appearing on Earth.
The Archean Eon saw the first signs of life appearing on Earth.
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The Phanerozoic Eon began with the Cambrian Explosion, which is a period of rapid diversification of life on Earth.
The Phanerozoic Eon began with the Cambrian Explosion, which is a period of rapid diversification of life on Earth.
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The Mesozoic Era is known as the "age of dinosaurs" and saw the rise and eventual extinction of these iconic creatures.
The Mesozoic Era is known as the "age of dinosaurs" and saw the rise and eventual extinction of these iconic creatures.
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The Cenozoic Era is known as the "age of mammals" and saw the rise of mammals as the dominant land animals.
The Cenozoic Era is known as the "age of mammals" and saw the rise of mammals as the dominant land animals.
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Fossils are the remains, imprints, or traces of prehistoric organisms that once lived on Earth.
Fossils are the remains, imprints, or traces of prehistoric organisms that once lived on Earth.
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Fossils can provide evidence about organisms that lived in the past, the history of Earth's surface, and past environments.
Fossils can provide evidence about organisms that lived in the past, the history of Earth's surface, and past environments.
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Which of these is a type of fossil that is the actual organism or a part of the organism that has been preserved in some way, such as amber, ice, or tar?
Which of these is a type of fossil that is the actual organism or a part of the organism that has been preserved in some way, such as amber, ice, or tar?
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Which of these is a type of fossil that is formed when minerals replace all or part of an organism's original material?
Which of these is a type of fossil that is formed when minerals replace all or part of an organism's original material?
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Which of these is a type of fossil that is an imprint of an organism's shape in rock?
Which of these is a type of fossil that is an imprint of an organism's shape in rock?
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Which of these is a type of fossil that is formed when minerals and sediment fill a mold?
Which of these is a type of fossil that is formed when minerals and sediment fill a mold?
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Index fossils are fossils of organisms that lived during a specific geologic period and are helpful for determining the age of rock layers.
Index fossils are fossils of organisms that lived during a specific geologic period and are helpful for determining the age of rock layers.
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Index fossils can be either macrofossils (large fossils) or microfossils (small fossils).
Index fossils can be either macrofossils (large fossils) or microfossils (small fossils).
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Index fossils can represent plants or animals, but most index fossils are animals.
Index fossils can represent plants or animals, but most index fossils are animals.
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A good index fossil is abundant, geographically widespread, has a short geologic time, and is easy to recognize and identify.
A good index fossil is abundant, geographically widespread, has a short geologic time, and is easy to recognize and identify.
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Index fossils can be used to define periods of the geologic time scale, provide the relative age of rock layers, and correlate rock layers from different locations.
Index fossils can be used to define periods of the geologic time scale, provide the relative age of rock layers, and correlate rock layers from different locations.
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Study Notes
Weathering
- Weathering is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces
- It's often divided into mechanical and chemical weathering
- Biological weathering involves living or non-living organisms contributing to weathering
Mechanical Weathering
- This is a physical process that breaks down rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition
- Factors include changes in temperature, expansion and contraction of rocks due to the sun and ice wedging
- Abrasion, the wearing away of rocks by collisions, is a form of mechanical weathering
- Exfoliation (sheeting): large flat or curved sheets of rock detach due to pressure release
Chemical Weathering
- This process breaks down rocks through chemical interactions
- It involves chemical reactions between rocks and substances like water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, acids, and bases
- Oxidation is a form of chemical weathering in which elements combine with oxygen
- Hydrolysis is the chemical reaction between water and other substances to form new substances
- Carbonation involves the formation of carbonic acid when carbon dioxide dissolves in water, leading to the conversion of a compound into a carbonate
- Organic acids, produced naturally by living organisms, also contribute to chemical weathering
Magma
- Molten or semi-molten rock mixture found beneath the Earth's surface
- Consists of inorganic components such as melt, minerals, and dissolved gases
- Magma viscosity is a fluid property describing its resistance to flow
- Magma chambers are underground pockets where magma may collect
Factors Influencing Magma Formation
- Partial melting: when only parts of a rock melt due to different melting points of the various minerals
- Decompression melting: melting occurs when a body of rock is held at the same temperature, but the pressure decreases
- Flux melting: adding substances like water or carbon dioxide to a rock lowers its melting point, facilitating partial melting
Transfer of Heat/Formation of Magma
- Rocks containing water melt at lower temperatures than rocks without water, leading to flux melting
- Magma intruding into cooler rock transfers heat to the surrounding rock, helping lower melting points and create magma
- This commonly occurs at subduction zones, where oceanic plates slide beneath continental plates
Types of Magma
- Basaltic/Mafic: High in iron, magnesium, and calcium; low in sodium, potassium
- Andesitic/Intermediate: Intermediate in iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium levels
- Felsic/Rhyolitic: Low in iron, magnesium, and calcium; high in sodium, potassium
Stress
- Tensional stress: rocks are pulled apart, lengthening and potentially breaking
- Compressional stress: rocks are squeezed together
- Shear stress: rocks slide past each other in opposite directions, causing friction and slippage
Folding
- Anticlines: upward-arched folds with the oldest rocks at the center
- Synclines: downward-bent folds with the youngest rocks at the center
Faulting
- Fractures in rocks under stress
- Normal faults: hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall
- Reverse faults: hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall
- Strike-slip faults: fault blocks move horizontally in opposite directions
Internal Heat
- Essential for Earth's processes.
- Conduction: heat transfer through collisions
- Convection: movement of heated material (magma) that becomes less dense and rises
Primordial Heat
- Remnants of the Earth's formation, from radioactive decay
Density of the Core
- The core's materials are very dense and primarily composed of iron and nickel
Layers of the Earth
- Crust: outermost, thin, cold, brittle layer
- Mantle: thickest layer, made primarily of iron, magnesium, and silicon
- Outer Core: liquid iron and nickel
- Inner Core: solid iron and nickel
Metamorphism
- Rocks changing form, composition, and structure due to intense heat, pressure, and/or chemically active fluids
- Factors of Metamorphism: Temperature, Pressure
Types of Metamorphism
- Contact metamorphism: rocks heated by magma
- Regional metamorphism: high temperature and pressure affect large portions of crust
- Shock metamorphism: caused by meteor or asteroid impacts
- Hydrothermal metamorphism: caused by hot, chemically active fluids
Stratigraphy
- Layers of rocks are formed through erosion and weathering.
- Steno's law of Superposition states that younger layers are on top of older layers
Different Methods of Determining the Age of Rocks
- Relative dating: determining the order in which events occurred
- Absolute dating: determining the numerical age of rocks or fossils
Index Fossils
- Fossils widely distributed geographically that lived for a short period of time
- Help determine the relative ages of layers.
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