Parts of Speech and Sentence Structures

Object: The person or thing affected by the verb.
- Direct Object: The primary recipient of the verb's action (e.g., "He gave the girl an apple.")
- Indirect Object: The recipient or beneficiary of the direct object (e.g., "He gave the girl an apple.").
Complement: Provides more information about the subject or object.
- Subject Complement: Modifies the subject (e.g., "His brother grew happier.")
- Object Complement: Modifies the object (e.g., "They made him the chairman.")
Adverbial: Modifies verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, providing details about time, place, manner, etc. (e.g., "John carefully searched the room carefully.").

Basic Patterns:
- S + V (Intransitive): Subject + Verb (e.g., "It rained.")
- S + V + O (Monotransitive): Subject + Verb + Direct Object (e.g., "John searched the room.")
- S + V + Oi + Od (Ditransitive): Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (e.g., "He gave her an apple.")
- S + V + C (Intensive): Subject + Verb + Subject Complement (e.g., "The girl is a student.")
- S + V + O + Co (Complex Transitive): Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Object Complement (e.g., "They made him chairman.")
Categories of Verbs:
- Intensive Verbs: Take subject complements (e.g, "She is a student.")
- Intransitive Verbs: Don't take objects (e.g., "It rained.")
- Monotransitive Verbs: Take a direct object (e.g., "John searched the room.")
- Ditransitive Verbs: Take both an indirect and direct object (e.g., "He gave her an apple").
- Complex Transitive Verbs: Take a direct object and object complement (e.g., "They made him chairman.")

Categories:
- Process Adverbials: Describe how an action happens (e.g., "John searched the room carefully.")
- Time Adverbials: Indicate when an action takes place (e.g., "He will arrive tomorrow.")
- Place Adverbials: Indicate where an action takes place (e.g., "She studied at a large university.")

Stative Verbs: Describe states or conditions that are permanent or ongoing (e.g., "I know the answer.")
Dynamic Verbs: Describe actions or events that happen in time (e.g., "He walked to the store.")
Dynamic Adjectives: Describe temporary states (e.g., "He is being naughty.").

Pronouns: Replace nouns or noun phrases (e.g., "John searched the room and he found the answer.").
Pro-forms for Place and Time: Replace phrases relating to location and time (e.g., "Mary is in London, and John is there too.").
Pro-verbs: Verbs like "do so" replace an entire verb phrase (e.g., "She asked him to search the room carefully, and he did so.").

Wh-Questions: Ask for specific information using "wh" words (who, what, where, etc.) (e.g., "Where is Mary?").
Yes-No Questions: Expect a yes or no answer and usually begin with an auxiliary verb (e.g., "Did John search the room?").
Negation: Involves rejecting or negating a statement using "not" (e.g., "John did not search the room.").

Assertive Sentences: Express statements as facts (e.g., "He offered her some chocolates.").
Non-Assertive Sentences: Question or negate a statement (questions and negations).
- Interrogative (questions): (e.g., "Did he offer her any chocolates?")
- Negative: (e.g., "He didn't offer her any chocolates.").

Primary Auxiliary Verbs:
- be (is, am, are, was, were, being, been)
- have (has, have, had)
- do (do, does, did)
Modal Auxiliary Verbs: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would.

Tense: Indicates when an action takes place (past, present, future).
- Present Tense: (e.g., "He works.")
- Past Tense: (e.g., "He worked.")
- Future Tense: (e.g., "He will work.")
Aspect: Indicates how an action unfolds in time.
- Simple Aspect: (e.g., "He eats.", "She read the book.")
- Progressive Aspect: Emphasizes ongoing action (e.g., "I am reading a book," "They were watching TV.")
- Perfect Aspect: Emphasizes completed action (e.g., "He has finished the project," "They had left before we arrived.")
- Perfect Progressive Aspect: Combines ongoing and completion (e.g., "I have been studying for hours", "She had been cooking all morning")
Mood: Reflects the speaker's attitude.
- Indicative Mood: States facts or asks questions (e.g., "She is here.", "Are they coming?")
- Imperative Mood: Gives commands (e.g., "Sit down.")
- Subjunctive Mood: Expresses wishes, suggestions, or hypothetical situations (e.g., "If I were you, I would study.", "I suggest that he be on time.")

Reflexive Pronoun: Refers back to the subject of the sentence (myself, himself, ourselves) (e.g., "She taught herself how to play the piano.")
Demonstrative Pronoun: Points to specific things (this, that, these, those) (e.g., "This is my favorite song.").

Noun Phrase: A group of words that functions as a noun in a sentence (e.g., "The cat is sleeping.").
Modifiers in Noun Phrases:
- Determiners: Words like the, a, this (e.g., "The book is on the table.")
- Adjectives: Describe the noun (e.g., "The old book is valuable.")
- Prepositional Phrases: Add more details (e.g., "The book on the shelf is mine.")

Noun Clause: A dependent clause that acts as a noun in a sentence.
Structure of Noun Clauses: Often begin with words like that, what, where, when, why, and how.

Determiners: Words that introduce nouns and give information about specificity, quantity, possession, or definiteness.
- Articles: the, a, an
- Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
- Possessives: my, your, his, her, our, their
- Quantifiers: some, any, many, few, much
- Numbers: one, two, three

Anaphoric Reference: Refers back to something already mentioned (e.g., "John is a great guy. He is always helpful.")
Cataphoric Reference: Refers forward to something that will be mentioned later (e.g., "When she arrived, Alice was surprised by the party.")