Parts of Speech and Sentence Structure

Parts of Speech

Nouns: Names of people, places, things, or ideas (e.g., cat, London, happiness).
Verbs: Action or state of being (e.g., run, is).
Adjectives: Describe nouns (e.g., red, tall, interesting).
Adverbs: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g., quickly, very).
Pronouns: Replace nouns (e.g., he, she, it).
Prepositions: Show relationships between nouns/pronouns and other words (e.g., in, on, at).
Conjunctions: Connect words, phrases, or clauses (e.g., and, but, or).
Interjections: Express emotions or exclamations (e.g., wow, ouch).

Sentence Structure

Simple Sentences: Contains one independent clause (e.g., She runs).
Compound Sentences: Contains two or more independent clauses, joined by a conjunction (e.g., She runs, and he swims).
Complex Sentences: Contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause (e.g., Although she was tired, she finished the race).
Compound-Complex Sentences: Contains at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses (e.g., She runs every day, and he swims, although he prefers cycling).

Tenses

Present Tense: Expresses current actions or states (e.g., She eats).
Past Tense: Expresses actions that have already happened (e.g., She ate).
Future Tense: Expresses actions that will happen (e.g., She will eat).
Present Perfect: Expresses actions that occurred at an unspecified time (e.g., She has eaten).
Past Perfect: Expresses actions completed before another past action (e.g., She had eaten before he arrived).
Future Perfect: Expresses actions that will be completed before a specific future time (e.g., She will have eaten by noon).

Subject-Verb Agreement

The subject and verb must agree in number (singular/plural).
- Singular: The cat runs.
- Plural: The cats run.

Punctuation

Periods (.): End declarative sentences.
Commas (,): Separate items in a list, clauses, or adjectives.
Exclamation Points (!): Indicate strong emotions or commands.
Question Marks (?): End interrogative sentences.
Semicolons (;): Connect closely related independent clauses.
Colons (:): Introduce lists, quotes, or explanations.

Common Errors

Run-on Sentences: Two or more independent clauses incorrectly joined.
Fragment Sentences: Incomplete sentences lacking a main clause.
Misplaced Modifiers: Words or phrases that are incorrectly positioned, causing confusion.
Pronoun Antecedent Agreement: Pronouns must agree in number and gender with the nouns they replace.

Active vs. Passive Voice

Active Voice: Subject performs the action (e.g., The chef cooked the meal).
Passive Voice: Subject receives the action (e.g., The meal was cooked by the chef).

Clauses

Independent Clauses: Can stand alone as a sentence (e.g., I run).
Dependent Clauses: Cannot stand alone and often begin with subordinating conjunctions (e.g., Because I was late).

Modifiers

Descriptive Modifiers: Provide more information about nouns/adjectives.
Limiting Modifiers: Restrict or clarify meaning (e.g., only, just).

Common Vocabulary

Affixes: Prefixes and suffixes added to root words to alter meaning.
Synonyms: Words with similar meanings (e.g., happy - joyful).
Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings (e.g., happy - sad).

Parts of Speech

Nouns identify people, places, things, or concepts (e.g., cat, London, happiness).
Verbs indicate actions or states of being (e.g., run, is).
Adjectives provide descriptions or qualities related to nouns (e.g., red, tall, interesting).
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs to explain how, when, where, or to what extent (e.g., quickly, very).
Pronouns substitute for nouns to avoid repetition (e.g., he, she, it).
Prepositions demonstrate the relationship between nouns/pronouns and other words (e.g., in, on, at).
Conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses, facilitating complex sentences (e.g., and, but, or).
Interjections convey emotions or sudden exclamations (e.g., wow, ouch).

Sentence Structure

Simple sentences consist of a single independent clause (e.g., She runs).
Compound sentences include two or more independent clauses connected by conjunctions (e.g., She runs, and he swims).
Complex sentences feature an independent clause along with at least one dependent clause (e.g., Although she was tired, she finished the race).
Compound-complex sentences contain multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause (e.g., She runs every day, and he swims, although he prefers cycling).

Tenses

Present tense reflects actions happening currently (e.g., She eats).
Past tense denotes actions that have already taken place (e.g., She ate).
Future tense refers to actions that will occur later (e.g., She will eat).
Present perfect describes actions completed at an unspecified time in the past (e.g., She has eaten).
Past perfect indicates actions finalized before another event in the past (e.g., She had eaten before he arrived).
Future perfect expresses actions that will be completed before a specified future point (e.g., She will have eaten by noon).

Subject-Verb Agreement

Subjects and verbs must correspond in number: singular or plural.
Example of singular agreement: The cat runs.
Example of plural agreement: The cats run.

Punctuation

Periods (.) conclude declarative sentences.
Commas (,) are used to separate items in lists, clauses, or adjectives.
Exclamation points (!) express strong emotions or commands.
Question marks (?) signify the end of interrogative sentences.
Semicolons (;) connect closely related independent clauses.
Colons (:) introduce lists, quotations, or explanations.

Common Errors

Run-on sentences occur when independent clauses are improperly fused.
Fragment sentences lack a main clause and are thus incomplete.
Misplaced modifiers can lead to confusion by being incorrectly positioned.
Pronoun antecedent agreement requires pronouns to match in number and gender with their respective nouns.

Active vs. Passive Voice

In active voice, the subject performs the action (e.g., The chef cooked the meal).
In passive voice, the subject receives the action (e.g., The meal was cooked by the chef).

Clauses

Independent clauses can function as standalone sentences (e.g., I run).
Dependent clauses cannot stand alone and typically start with subordinating conjunctions (e.g., Because I was late).

Modifiers

Descriptive modifiers add information to nouns and adjectives.
Limiting modifiers clarify or restrict meaning (e.g., only, just).

Common Vocabulary

Affixes are prefixes or suffixes that change the meaning of root words.
Synonyms are words that share similar meanings (e.g., happy - joyful).
Antonyms are words that convey opposite meanings (e.g., happy - sad).

Present Perfect

Used for actions completed at an unspecified time before now.
Describes life experiences without indicating when they occurred.
Indicates changes in states or situations over time.
Highlights recent actions that have relevance to the present moment.

Time Expressions for Present Perfect

Frequently accompanied by terms like ever, never, just, already, yet, so far, since, and for.

Form and Structure of Present Perfect

Affirmative: Constructed as Subject + has/have + past participle (e.g., "She has visited.")
Negative: Formed as Subject + has/have + not + past participle (e.g., "He has not seen.")
Interrogative: Asked as Has/Have + subject + past participle? (e.g., "Have you eaten?")

Present Perfect Continuous

Emphasizes the duration of actions that began in the past and continue into the present.
Focuses on recent actions that are relevant to the present, especially those that have recently ceased or were interrupted.
Used for temporary situations that do not indicate permanence.

Time Expressions for Present Perfect Continuous

Commonly used with expressions like for, since, recently, lately, and all day/week/month.

Form and Structure of Present Perfect Continuous

Affirmative: Formed as Subject + has/have been + present participle (e.g., "They have been studying.")
Negative: Structured as Subject + has/have not been + present participle (e.g., "She has not been working.")
Interrogative: Formed as Has/Have + subject + been + present participle? (e.g., "Have you been waiting?")