Palaiologos Dynasty: Policies and Decline

• The rise of the Palaiologos dynasty marked a new era for the Byzantine Empire.

Palaiologos Policies

• The Palaiologoi favored the aristocracy, specifically landowners, reversing the Laskaris dynasty's pro-lower class policies.
• The relocation of the empire's capital back to Constantinople in 1261 created new demands on foreign and domestic policy.
• Under Michael VIII, the eastern part of the state was neglected, with increased focus on the West and Italian naval powers to protect the empire.
• The state's attempts to meet new demands were overwhelming, leading to the empire's gradual decline.
• Two civil wars further weakened the state, rendering it feeble and setting the stage for its final fall.
• Palaiologos emperors ruled during a time when Byzantium possessed minimal power.

Michael VIII's Foreign Policy

• Michael VIII pursued a daring foreign policy by pitting the empire's enemies against each other.
• His aim was to buy time and solidify Byzantine dominance in Constantinople while gaining territory in the Balkans without resistance.
• Negotiating the union of the Churches with the Pope was part of his political strategy, which became a fixture strategy
• He anticipated papal influence to deter aggressive plans by Western rulers, particularly Charles of Anjou of Sicily against the restored empire.
• Byzantium became a regulator in this period; while in the reigns of his successors economic and political decline was evident.
• The contrast between the glorified past and the diminished, divided, and anachronistic state was stark.
• Byzantium became more of an object and less of a driver in international developments in the Balkans and the Mediterranean.

Palaiologos' Desperate Measures

• The Palaiologos dynasty desperately sought help from the West against external threats, such as Latins, Serbs, Bulgarians, and Ottomans.
• Church unification was proposed in exchange for papal protection, as seen with Michael VIII in 1274 at the Council of Lyon and John VIII in 1439 at the Council of Ferrara-Florence.
• John V was the first Byzantine emperor to embrace Roman Catholicism in 1369.
• Andronikos II strongly opposed unification.
• Palaiologos diplomacy involved creating familial ties with Latins, Serbia, Bulgaria, Trebizond, and Epirus to enhance Byzantium's international standing.

Consequences and Decline

• The results of these policies were limited as the empire was on a path of irreversible decline.
• Civil wars weakened the Byzantine state, allowing external enemies to gain significant territorial advantages.
• Stephen Dusan, a Serbian ruler, subjugated Macedonia (excluding Thessaloniki) and was crowned emperor in Skopje by the Serbian Patriarch in 1346, controlling Epirus and Thessaly by 1348.
• The collapse of the Serbian empire after Dusan's death did not provide relief for Byzantium, as the absence of a powerful force in the Balkans created more opportunities for the Ottoman Turks.
• John V Palaiologos (1341-1376 and 1379-1391) sought assistance from the Pope without success.
• After the Battle of Evros in November 1371, where the Ottomans defeated Serbian rulers, the empire almost willingly submitted to Ottoman rule, agreeing to pay tribute and provide military service.
• The weakened Byzantine Empire was caught between Genoa and Venice at sea.
• The Sultan gradually became the real regulator in Constantinople
• By the 15th century, the final Byzantine emperors had lost all real power, and appeals for aid against the Ottomans to western states and the Pope were ineffective.

Last Efforts and Fall

• When the final Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI (1449-1453), declared the union of the Churches in Hagia Sophia in December 1452, he faced strong opposition.
• The actual support gained from the Pope was meager and insufficient to prevent the imminent Fall of Constantinople.