Основы программирования

• Programming fundamentals are the basic concepts and building blocks necessary for creating computer programs
• These fundamentals apply across different programming languages

Key Programming Concepts

• Variables are used to store data values
• Each variable has a name, a data type, and a value
• Data types define the kind of data a variable can hold (e.g., integer, floating-point number, string, boolean)
• Operators perform operations on variables and values
• Arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /, % (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulus)
• Comparison operators: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= (equal to, not equal to, greater than, less than, greater than or equal to, less than or equal to)
• Logical operators: AND, OR, NOT (used to combine or negate boolean expressions)
• Assignment operators: =, +=, -=, *=, /= (assign a value to a variable)

Control Structures

• Control structures determine the order in which instructions are executed
• Sequential execution: statements are executed in the order they appear
• Conditional statements: execute different blocks of code based on a condition
  • 'if' statement: executes a block of code if a condition is true
  • 'else' statement: executes a block of code if the 'if' condition is false
  • 'else if' (or 'elif') statement: checks multiple conditions
• Loops: repeat a block of code multiple times
  • 'for' loop: iterates over a sequence of elements (e.g., a list or a range of numbers)
  • 'while' loop: executes a block of code as long as a condition is true
  • 'do-while' loop: executes a block of code at least once, then repeats as long as a condition is true

Data Structures

• Data structures are ways of organizing and storing data
• Arrays: a collection of elements of the same data type, stored in contiguous memory locations, accessed by index
• Lists: a collection of elements in a specific order, can contain elements of different data types, and are typically dynamic in size
• Dictionaries (or Hashmaps): store data in key-value pairs, allowing efficient retrieval of values based on their keys
• Sets: collection of unique elements, used to perform mathematical set operations (e.g., union, intersection)
• Trees: hierarchical data structure where each node has a parent and zero or more children
• Graphs: consists of nodes (vertices) connected by edges, used to represent relationships between objects

Functions

• Functions are reusable blocks of code that perform a specific task
• Functions can accept input values (arguments or parameters) and return a value
• Defining a function: specifying the function name, parameters, and the code to be executed
• Calling a function: executing the function by using its name and passing the required arguments
• Return values: the result of a function that is sent back to the caller

Input/Output

• Input: receiving data from an external source (e.g., keyboard, file)
• Output: displaying data to an external destination (e.g., screen, file)
• Standard input/output streams: commonly used for basic input and output operations

Fundamental Programming Concepts

• Algorithms: step-by-step procedure for solving a problem
• Data structures: methods for organizing and storing data
• Syntax: rules governing the structure of a programming language
• Semantics: meaning of the code
• Debugging: process of identifying and fixing errors in code
• Code comments: explanations added to the code to make it more understandable
• Variables: named storage locations that hold data
• Data types: categories of data, such as integers, strings, and booleans
• Operators: symbols that perform operations on data
• Control flow: order in which code is executed
• Functions: reusable blocks of code
• Scope: region of the program where a variable is accessible

Key Terms

• Program: a set of instructions that a computer follows to perform a task
• Source code: human-readable code written by a programmer
• Compiler: a program that translates source code into machine code (executable code)
• Interpreter: a program that executes source code line by line
• Syntax error: an error in the structure of the code (e.g., missing semicolon)
• Logic error: an error in the algorithm or logic of the code, causing it to produce incorrect results
• Runtime error: an error that occurs during the execution of the program (e.g., division by zero)
• Debugging: process of finding and fixing errors in code
• Variable: a named storage location that holds a value
• Data type: the type of data a variable can hold (e.g., integer, string, boolean)
• Function: a reusable block of code that performs a specific task
• Parameter: an input value passed to a function
• Argument: the actual value passed to a function when it is called
• Return value: the value returned by a function
• Control structure: a statement that controls the flow of execution of the program (e.g., if statement, loop)
• Algorithm: a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem
• Pseudocode: an informal way of describing an algorithm
• Object: an instance of a class, containing data (attributes) and methods
• Class: a blueprint for creating objects
• Inheritance: a mechanism that allows a class to inherit properties and methods from another class
• Polymorphism: the ability of an object to take on many forms
• Encapsulation: the bundling of data and methods that operate on that data within a class
• IDE (Integrated Development Environment): a software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development.
• API (Application Programming Interface): a set of rules and specifications that software programs can follow to communicate with each other. It serves as an interface between different software systems, facilitating their interaction and exchange of data.
• Library: a collection of pre-written code that can be reused in multiple programs.
• Framework: a reusable, semi-complete application that can be specialized to produce custom applications.
• Version Control System (e.g., Git): A system that records changes to a file or set of files over time so that you can recall specific versions later.