Origin of the Universe

Origin of the Universe

• The Big Bang Theory, proposed by Georges Lemaitre in 1927, suggests that the universe originated from the rapid expansion of a hot, dense primordial atom.
• This theory is supported by the observation that galaxies are moving away from our own.
• Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation is the oldest known radiation, discovered by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1964.
• Before the Big Bang, all observable universe matter was compressed into a few millimeters.
• Between 10 and 20 billion years ago, a massive blast allowed matter and energy to spring forth.
• In a moment (a trillion-trillionth of a second after the Big Bang), the universe expanded from pebble size to astronomical scope, then slowed over billions of years.
• The Steady-State Theory, proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle in 1948, posits an expanding universe that maintains a constant average density with continuous matter creation.
• The Oscillating Universe Theory combines the Big Bang and Big Crunch as part of a cyclical event.
• The Big Bang refers to the expansion phase.
• The Big Crunch refers to the collapse phase.
• The Big Bounce proposes that the universe collapses and rebounds into a new one.
• Eternal Inflation Theory suggests the Universe's expansion lasts forever, inflating the volume

Origin of the Solar System

• The Geocentric Model, proposed by Ptolemy, places the Earth at the center of the solar system, with "Geo" meaning "Land" and "Centric" meaning "Center".
• The Heliocentric Model, proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543, places the Sun at the center of the solar system.
• The Nebular Hypothesis suggests our solar system was developed with regular motion, and gaseous globes assembled into satellites in orbit around the planets.
• The Encounter Hypothesis proposes a rogue star passed near the Sun 5 billion years ago, removing gas that fragmented into planet-forming lumps.
• Protoplanet Hypothesis by Gerald P. Kuiper in 1949 suggests original nebula was massive, contracting into protoplanets that collided, accreted, and formed layers.
• The German physicist Carl Friedrich von Weizacken proposed the Dust Cloud Theory, noting the dust cloud's mass was 10% of the sun's mass.

Subsystems of the Earth

• Earth systems involve all matter, energy, and processes within Earth's boundary, functioning as a complex system of living and non-living components.
• The geosphere/lithosphere is the solid, rocky part of Earth, extending from the center to the surface.
• The crust is the thin, outermost layer of silicate materials, varying in thickness from 2 miles to 75 miles deep, with oceanic crust 5-10km thick and continental crust 35-70km thick.
• The mantle comprises 70% of Earth's mass.
• While solid, it can flow like hot asphalt and fudge.
• Mantle convection currents involve hot magma rising, cooling, sinking, and reheating in a cycle.
• The asthenosphere, a soft mantle layer, allows lithospheric movement and slow flow.
• The lithosphere encompasses the crust and upper mantle, segmented into slowly moving plates.
• The outer core is liquid and 2,200km thick.
• The inner core is solid and 1,228km thick.
• The hydrosphere is the part of Earth that is liquid water, including oceans, lakes, rivers, marshes, groundwater, rain, and water droplets
• The continuous movement of water on Earth, moving in and out of living systems, defines the water cycle.
• Evaporation involves water turning to vapor due to temperature.
• Condensation involves vapor forming clouds.
• Precipitation involves water falling as rain.
• Run-off involves water going into the ground where it is absorbed.
• Transpiration is the process where water goes into organisms.
• The cryosphere consists of all frozen water on Earth, including snow, ice, sea ice, glaciers, ice shelves, icebergs, and permafrost.
• The cryosphere changes can significantly impact Earth's climate and species survival.
• The atmosphere is a mixture of mainly invisible gases surrounding Earth within 500 to 600km, with most gases concentrated within 8 to 50km.
• Minor atmospheric gases include argon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.
• The atmosphere traps solar energy, warming Earth to support life.
• Atmospheric gases absorb/reflect harmful UV rays protecting life.

Layers of the Atmosphere

• Troposphere: Ranges from 0 to 18km and contains clouds and planes.
• Stratosphere: Ranges from 11km to 50km and is used for radio transmissions.
• Mesosphere: Ranges from 40km to 90km and is where meteors burn up.
• Thermosphere: Ranges from 80km to 800km and is where auroras and aircraft are found.
• Exosphere: Ranges from 700 to 10,000km and is where satellites and spaceships operate.
• The biosphere encompasses living things and their areas on Earth.
• Organisms need oxygen and carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
• All of Earth's spheres interact, cycling matter and energy. These interactions are necessary for life.

Characteristics of Earth That Support Life

• Water is a universal solvent.
• Energy is vital to happen here.
• Worlds need starts that can live for billions of years.
• Plate tectonics helps recycle molecules.
• A magnetic field protect against solar particles.
• Central star size should not be more than 1.5 solar mass.
• The Central star should be at least 0.3 solar mass to be warm enough.
• Stars should not emit strong x-rays.
• Planets must orbit the right distance from star for water.
• Planet orbit must be circular.
• Gravity must hold an atmosphere.
• Stars should survive for planets to develop life.
• Planets need to be in regions where water can stay liquid.
• Goldilocks Zone: Amount of heat received makes temperature neither too hot or cold.

Minerals

• Minerals occur naturally.
• Minerals activate chemical reactions.
• Minerals are catalysts for batteries.
• Minerals are solid and stable at room temperature.
• Minerals tend to be abiogenic and inorganic.
• Minerals are not produced by living organisms.
• Minerals have ordered atomic structures.
• Silicon and oxygen make up most of the Earth's crust.
• Physical properties relate to chemical arrangement.
• Distinguishing characteristics include crystal formation, luster, streak, tenacity, and more.
• Minerals form by natural forces without artificial aid.
• Minerals are inorganic, lacking carbon, and formed by geological forces.
• Minerals are stable at 20-25 degree C.
• Minerals stay solid.
• Mineral composition does vary within a specific range.
• Mineral atoms show systematic arrangement

Hardness

• The Mohs Hardness Scale determines hardness.
• The "first" mineral on the scale is softest.
• The "last" mineral is hardest.
• Measuring includes finding hardest material the given items scratches, and softest that scratches others.
• Corundum(9) is twice as hard to topaz(8); diamond (10) is four times as hard as corundum (9).

Indicators of Environment

• Minerals are used as indicators of environment condition.
• This can relate to macro, profiles, landscape, or continent scale.
• The pH of water reflects composition.
• Mineral patterns show oxidation.
• Drainage changes mineral formation.
• Minerals reveal former landscapes.

The Makeup of Minerals

• Regolith reflects rock alteration or transport.
• Minerals keep us energized.
• Minerals are used in construction.
• Sand and Gravels assist in foundations.
• Minerals form from Iron Ore.
• Dimension Stone provides architectural material.
• Phosphate and potash rock are Mineral fertilizers.
• Lime is used for soil treatment.
• Mineral feeds boost animal health.
• Minerals form chemical products.

The Negative impact of Minerals

• Air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution is caused by development.
• Oil spills and creates smoke can be an issue.
• Vegetation damage can occur.
• Geological disturbance.
• Natural disasters.

Properties of Rocks

• Minerals are crystalline substances.
• Rocks are composed of of minerals.
• There are 5000 necessary to identity rocks.
• Essential features consists of natural formation, being inorganic, solid, definable, and ordered.

Classifications of Minerals

• Silicate: Primarily silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons.
• Oxide: Metal cations bonded to oxygen anions
• Sulfide: Metal ions bonded to sulfides.
• Sulfate: Metallic ions bonded to sulfate ions.
• Halide: Metallic ions bonded to halogens.
• Carbonate: Minerals bonded to carbon.
• Native: Made of singular elements.

Crystal Structure

• Crystal forms according to composition.
• Cube shape: Isometric.
• Monoclinic crystals have axes of varying lengths with meeting points.
• Orthorhombic crystals have varying axis meet points.
• Tetragonal crystals have equal lengths and long axes.
• Hexagonal crystals have angling and perpendicular axes..
• Triclinic crystals have skewed sides.

Habits of Mineral

• Minerals have a outward appearance.
• Acicular resembles a needle.
• Other habits include: Banded, elgonated crystals.
• Globular includes Botryoidal.
• Width exceeds type with Columnar crystals.
• Six squared faces come as Cubic.
• Minerals that branch resemble Dendritic.
• Dodecahedral minerals have faces.
• Drusy include minerals like Drusy.
• Fibrous includes minerals like Fibrous.
• Foliated includes minerals like Foliated.
• Geodic includes minerals like Geodic.
• Granular includes minerals like Granular.
• Partially formed crystals include Hopper.
• Massive crystals include Massive.
• Crystals that form rounded show Nodular structures.
• Crystals form into shape.

Properties and Characteristics

• Mineral splitting involves break strength.
• Fracture: Mineral's surface reflects cleavage.
• Applying stress is Parting.
• Eminent cleaves easily.
• Clear surfaces mean Perfect results.
• Distinct has minor inconsistencies.
• Surfaces after cutting, and breaking happens if minerals are difficult.

Mineral Characteristics

• Basal cleaves at base..
• Cubic cleaves cubes.
• Dodecahedral cleaves dodecahedron.
• Octahedral cleaves with form and directions.
• Prismatic forms can cause fractures with series of curves.
• Rough or uneven material is a Uneven fracture.
• Metals, Hackly is the style of cut.
• Rough edged minerals show more characteristics.
• Elastic crystals are Fibrous.
• Earthy "Crumbly" creates material.
• Cross between round fractures is Subconchoidal.

Luster in Minerals

• refers to how minerals reflect it. Luster is broken down in brilliant, dull and reflective categories.
• Transparent/translucent includes Adamantine.
• Poor includes Earthy.
• Something smooth includes Greasy.
• Reflective/Opaqueness includes Metallic .
• Pearl sheen is Pearly.
• Resin can be Resinous.
• Fibrous structured ones Silk
• Metal or opaque is Submetallic .
• Reflective shine is Vitreous.
• Wax coating is Waxy.
• These come with Colors, Streaks, Transparency, Translucency, Purity

Properties of Minerals

• A mineral's properties include : hardness, density, and weight.

Other properties relating to Minerals

• Reacts with dilute acids during reactions.
• Can be tested to show different characteristics.
• A strong spark happens with Striking Steel.
• Can attract metallic objects.
• Showing shine is a Schiller Effect.
• Character causes sensation when touched.

The Earth as a rock

• Rocks are a solid masses, containing minerals.
• Categorization depends mineral , composition and formation in the zone.
• Rock Cycle - describes of rock processes/transformation.
• The cycle include - Weathering, Erosion, and Composition depending.

3 Ways Rocks Form

• Magma turns into Igneous rocks when cooling.
• Weathering creates Sedimentary rocks.
• Extreme conditions can create Metamorphic rocks
• Lithification follows.
• A glassy shiny material are Crystals.
• The are made from fossils.
• Rocks contain can contain swiss cheese Holes

How Sediment is formed

• Made of wavy lines.
• Made of sediment and stone.
• Texture depends on formation.
• Glassy grains are formed , as it solidifies.
• More grainy is the result of crystalization.

Types and Texture

• A mixture from small sediments are Extrusive rocks, not resulting any crystal formation.
• Slow formation occurs because magma cools slower so crystal formation increases.
• Igneous rock causes volcanic eruptions or activity.
• Sedimentation causes layering and biogenetic results during that process.
• Irregular patterns follow if cracks as minerals dry.
• Moving water increases deposition .
• Material deposits and accumulates due to Cross section.

Changes with pressure

• Metamorphism means change and form.
• This usually comes from the rocks.
• Layer, contact, and hydrothermal effects affect formation.
• The circulation , and movement as material varies is causes of tempature changes.
• Seafloor rock rises pushing away the ridges as temperatures move material.

Plates

• Plate shifts can cause vibrations across the surface.
• Stress causes change.
• Rock can become compressed, or can slide.