Organic Reactions

• Physics, chemistry, and biology are fundamental scientific disciplines.
• Chemistry explores matter and its properties.
• Physics studies matter, energy, and their interactions.
• Biology examines living organisms.

Organic Reactions

• Organic reactions involve the making and breaking of chemical bonds in organic molecules.
• Addition reactions occur when two or more molecules combine to form a larger molecule.
• Elimination reactions involve the removal of atoms or groups of atoms from a molecule, forming a multiple bond.
• Substitution reactions involve replacing one atom or group of atoms in a molecule with another atom or group.
• Rearrangement reactions involve the reorganization of atoms and bonds within a molecule.
• Oxidation reactions involve the loss of electrons, while reduction reactions involve the gain of electrons.
• Common organic reactions include: SN1, SN2, E1, E2, addition, elimination, oxidation, reduction, esterification, and polymerization.
• Reaction mechanisms describe the step-by-step sequence of events that occur during a chemical reaction.
• Factors affecting organic reactions include: steric hindrance, electronic effects, solvent effects, and temperature.

Cell Biology

• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
• Cell theory states that all living organisms are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function in living organisms, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
• Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.
• Key cellular structures include: the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and ribosomes.
• The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that regulates the passage of substances into and out of the cell.
• The nucleus contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and controls the cell's activities.
• Mitochondria are responsible for cellular respiration and ATP production.
• The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.
• The Golgi apparatus processes and packages proteins for transport to other parts of the cell.
• Lysosomes contain enzymes that break down cellular waste products and debris.
• Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
• Cell division is the process by which cells reproduce.
• Mitosis is the process of cell division that produces two identical daughter cells.
• Meiosis is the process of cell division that produces four haploid gametes (sex cells).
• Cell signaling is the process by which cells communicate with each other.
• Cell differentiation is the process by which cells become specialized in structure and function.

Chemical Bonding

• Chemical bonding is the attractive force that holds atoms together in molecules and compounds.
• Ionic bonds are formed through the transfer of electrons between atoms, resulting in the formation of ions.
• Covalent bonds are formed through the sharing of electrons between atoms.
• Metallic bonds are formed through the delocalization of electrons within a metal lattice.
• Hydrogen bonds are weak interactions between a hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative atom (such as oxygen or nitrogen).
• Van der Waals forces are weak, short-range interactions between molecules due to temporary fluctuations in electron distribution.
• Bond polarity refers to the unequal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond, resulting in a partial positive and partial negative charge on the atoms.
• Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond.
• Molecular geometry describes the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule.
• VSEPR theory (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) predicts the geometry of molecules based on the repulsion between electron pairs.
• Hybridization is the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals for bonding.

Thermodynamics

• Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its transformations.
• The laws of thermodynamics describe the fundamental principles governing energy transfer and equilibrium.
• The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved; it can be converted from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
• The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system always increases over time. Entropy is a measure of disorder or randomness.
• The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero (0 K) is zero.
• Enthalpy (H) is a measure of the heat content of a system at constant pressure.
• Entropy (S) is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system.
• Gibbs free energy (G) is a measure of the amount of energy available to do work in a chemical or physical system at constant temperature and pressure (G = H - TS).
• Exothermic reactions release heat (ΔH < 0), while endothermic reactions absorb heat (ΔH > 0).
• Spontaneous processes occur without any external input of energy (ΔG < 0).
• Equilibrium is the state where the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal, and there is no net change in the concentrations of reactants and products.
• Thermochemistry is the study of heat changes that accompany chemical reactions.

Kinematics

• Kinematics describes the motion of objects without considering the forces that cause the motion.
• Displacement is the change in position of an object.
• Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
• Speed is the magnitude of velocity.
• Uniform motion occurs when an object moves with constant velocity.
• Non-uniform motion occurs when an object's velocity changes over time.
• Projectile motion is the motion of an object thrown or projected into the air, subject to gravity.
• Equations of motion (SUVAT equations) relate displacement (s), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a), and time (t) for uniformly accelerated motion.
• Key equations of motion: v = u + at, s = ut + (1/2)at^2, v^2 = u^2 + 2as, s = (u+v)t/2
• Vectors have both magnitude and direction, while scalars only have magnitude.
• Examples of vectors include displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force.
• Examples of scalars include distance, speed, time, and mass.
• Relative motion describes the motion of an object with respect to another moving object.