Functional Groups 1

A reaction where a nucleophile replaces a leaving group on a molecule.

A reaction that forms a double bond by losing atoms/groups.

Multiple double bonds with overlapping p-orbitals.

Multiple double bonds with non-overlapping p-orbitals.

Alternating single and multiple bonds, allowing p-orbital overlap.

Using UV light to identify conjugated systems by measuring absorption.

Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital.

Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital

Conjugated alkenes react with electrophiles in a way that leads to multiple products, instead of just one. This happens because the electrons are "delocalized" across multiple carbon atoms, making the reaction sites less specific.

Cycloalkanes are cyclic versions of alkanes, meaning they form rings. Most cycloalkanes behave similarly to alkanes in terms of stability and reactivity. However, cyclopropane is an exception.

Cyclopropane, unlike other cycloalkanes, behaves more like an unsaturated molecule. It's more reactive due to its strained ring structure

Alkyl halides are organic compounds with a halogen atom (like chlorine, bromine, or fluorine) bonded to a carbon atom in an alkyl group.

Alkyl halides have weak van der Waals forces between molecules due to the polar carbon-halogen bond. This results in low boiling points, making smaller alkyl halides gases or liquids at room temperature.

Alkyl halides are generally insoluble in water. The reason is their inability to form strong interactions (like hydrogen bonding) with water molecules.

Alkenes are prone to forming peroxides, which can be dangerous. Therefore, they should be stored in well-sealed containers to prevent exposure to oxygen.

A species with an electron pair that can attack an electron-deficient atom, usually a carbon with a partial positive charge.

Peroxides form when alkenes react with oxygen. They can be explosive and should be handled with care. Proper storage helps prevent their formation.

A nucleophilic substitution reaction with a 3° alkyl halide that proceeds through a carbocation intermediate. The rate depends only on the alkyl halide concentration.

A positively charged carbon atom with only 3 bonds and an empty p orbital. Tertiary carbocations are the most stable.

A nucleophilic substitution reaction with 1° or 2° alkyl halide that proceeds through a transition state. The rate depends on both the substrate and nucleophile concentrations.

The nucleophile attacks from the opposite side of the leaving group in an SN2 reaction, inverting the configuration of the carbon atom.

Enantiomers of a drug often have different biological activities due to their different interactions with target molecules.

An alkyl group is a branched or unbranched chain of carbon atoms, often represented by the symbol 'R'. It forms the basic structure of many organic molecules.

A primary alkyl group has one carbon atom directly attached to the main chain.

A secondary alkyl group has two carbon atoms directly attached to the main chain.

Alkanes are hydrocarbons with only single bonds between carbon atoms. Their general formula is CnH2n+2, where 'n' represents the number of carbon atoms.

Alkanes are non-polar molecules due to the similar electronegativity of carbon and hydrogen. This results in weak intermolecular forces, leading to low boiling points and insolubility in water.

Alkanes are very stable and unreactive due to the strong C-H and C-C bonds. They are often called 'paraffins', meaning 'little affinity' in Latin.

Alkanes are soluble in lipids (fats and oils) due to their non-polar nature. This allows them to cross cell membranes and enter the brain.

Some alkanes can be used as general anesthetics because their lipid solubility allows them to easily pass through cell membranes and reach the brain.

Carbocations, positively charged carbons, have varying stabilities. Tertiary (3°) carbocations are most stable, followed by secondary (2°), then primary (1°).

Epoxides form through oxidation, adding an oxygen atom across a double bond. This process is common in biochemical pathways.

Epoxides are highly reactive due to ring strain. They are easily protonated and then readily attacked by nucleophiles.

Peroxides are notoriously unstable due to the weak oxygen-oxygen bond. This makes them prone to decomposition, which can be explosive.

The general formula for alkenes is CnH2n, indicating the presence of a double bond.

Alkenes are nonpolar molecules with weak intermolecular forces. Low molecular weight alkenes are gases, while higher molecular weight alkenes are liquids.

Alkenes are insoluble in water due to their nonpolar nature. They dissolve in nonpolar solvents like lipids (fats and oils).

In an addition reaction, a molecule breaks apart, and its pieces add across the double bond of an alkene, forming a single bond.

Hydrogenation is the addition of hydrogen (H2) across the double bond of an alkene, converting it to an alkane. This process saturates the molecule.

Hydration is the addition of water (H2O) across the double bond of an alkene, forming an alcohol. This reaction requires an acid catalyst.

Alkenes should be stored in sealed containers to prevent exposure to oxygen, which can lead to the formation of explosive peroxides.

Conjugated alkenes contain alternating single and double bonds, creating delocalized electrons. This delocalization leads to multiple products when they react with electrophiles, unlike regular alkenes.

Cycloalkanes are cyclic versions of alkanes, meaning they form rings. Most cycloalkanes behave similarly to alkanes in terms of stability and reactivity.

Cyclopropane, unlike other cycloalkanes, behaves more like an unsaturated molecule. It's more reactive due to its strained ring structure.

Alkyl halides are organic compounds with a halogen atom (like chlorine, bromine, or fluorine) bonded to a carbon atom in an alkyl group.

Alkyl halides are generally insoluble in water. The reason is their inability to form strong interactions (like hydrogen bonding) with water molecules.

Alkenes are prone to forming peroxides, which can be dangerous. Therefore, they should be stored in well-sealed containers to prevent exposure to oxygen.

Peroxide formation is a serious concern because peroxides are unstable and can decompose explosively.

The atom or group that is replaced in a nucleophilic substitution reaction.

Nucleophilic substitution and elimination reactions compete because both involve nucleophiles with unshared electron pairs.

The C-X bond in alkyl halides is polar, meaning it has a partial positive charge on the carbon and a partial negative charge on the halogen.

A molecule with alternating single and double bonds where all adjacent p orbitals can overlap.

HOMO: Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital; LUMO: Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital. These orbitals are involved in UV absorption.

The nucleophile attacks from the opposite side of the leaving group in an SN2 reaction, causing an inversion of configuration at the carbon atom.

Colored compounds have extended systems of conjugation, meaning their UV absorptions extend into the visible region.

Enantiomers, mirror-image molecules, can have significantly different biological activities because they interact with target molecules in different ways.

Molecules with conjugated π bonds tend to be more stable and less reactive than those with isolated π bonds.

Alkyl halides are useful for synthesizing other functional groups and as solvents.

Tertiary alkyl halides (R3CX) readily form stable carbocations due to the electron-donating effect of the three alkyl groups, which stabilizes the positive charge.