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Questions and Answers
What is the term used to describe a sugar molecule containing one saccharide unit?
What is the term used to describe a sugar molecule containing one saccharide unit?
- Disaccharide
- Polysaccharide
- Monosaccharide (correct)
- Oligosaccharide
Which of the following is an example of a disaccharide?
Which of the following is an example of a disaccharide?
- Sucrose (correct)
- Inulin
- Glucose
- Starch
What is the term used to describe a molecule whose mirror images are not superimposable?
What is the term used to describe a molecule whose mirror images are not superimposable?
- Chiral molecule (correct)
- Enantiomer
- Diastereomer
- Achiral molecule
What is the condition for chirality in ring systems?
What is the condition for chirality in ring systems?
Which type of isomerism involves a difference in spatial arrangement without involving cis-trans isomerism?
Which type of isomerism involves a difference in spatial arrangement without involving cis-trans isomerism?
What is the term used to describe isomers that are mirror images of each other?
What is the term used to describe isomers that are mirror images of each other?
What is the term used to describe isomers that differ in the arrangement of substituents around a double bond or within a ring structure?
What is the term used to describe isomers that differ in the arrangement of substituents around a double bond or within a ring structure?
What is the key difference between configurational and cis-trans diastereomers?
What is the key difference between configurational and cis-trans diastereomers?
Which of the following is an example of a polysaccharide?
Which of the following is an example of a polysaccharide?
What is the term used to describe a molecule with four different atoms or groups bonded to the carbon?
What is the term used to describe a molecule with four different atoms or groups bonded to the carbon?
What is the characteristic of enantiomers?
What is the characteristic of enantiomers?
What is the definition of diastereomers?
What is the definition of diastereomers?
What is the function of Fischer projection formula?
What is the function of Fischer projection formula?
What is the characteristic of epimers?
What is the characteristic of epimers?
What is the characteristic of anomers?
What is the characteristic of anomers?
What is the characteristic of monosaccharides?
What is the characteristic of monosaccharides?
What is the characteristic of D-glyceraldehyde?
What is the characteristic of D-glyceraldehyde?
What is the characteristic of D-ribose?
What is the characteristic of D-ribose?
What is the function of ribose phosphates?
What is the function of ribose phosphates?
What is the characteristic of diastereomers?
What is the characteristic of diastereomers?
What is the normal glucose level in blood?
What is the normal glucose level in blood?
Which of the following sugars is commonly found in fruit juices and honey?
Which of the following sugars is commonly found in fruit juices and honey?
What is the result of oxidizing a monosaccharide with a strong oxidizing agent?
What is the result of oxidizing a monosaccharide with a strong oxidizing agent?
What is the product of the reduction of D-Glucose?
What is the product of the reduction of D-Glucose?
What is the general term for a monosaccharide acetal?
What is the general term for a monosaccharide acetal?
What is the role of D-Galactose in the body?
What is the role of D-Galactose in the body?
Which of the following is an example of a phosphate ester?
Which of the following is an example of a phosphate ester?
What is the result of the oxidation of a primary alcohol in a monosaccharide?
What is the result of the oxidation of a primary alcohol in a monosaccharide?
Which of the following is a characteristic of D-Glucose and L-Glucose?
Which of the following is a characteristic of D-Glucose and L-Glucose?
What is the result of the substitution of one hydroxyl group of a monosaccharide with an amino group?
What is the result of the substitution of one hydroxyl group of a monosaccharide with an amino group?
What is the result of lactose hydrolysis by lactase?
What is the result of lactose hydrolysis by lactase?
What is the type of bond found in maltose?
What is the type of bond found in maltose?
What is the function of lactose in infant formulas?
What is the function of lactose in infant formulas?
What is the difference between sucrose and other disaccharides?
What is the difference between sucrose and other disaccharides?
What is the name of the toxin found in potatoes?
What is the name of the toxin found in potatoes?
What determines the blood type of an individual?
What determines the blood type of an individual?
What is the general term for polysaccharides?
What is the general term for polysaccharides?
What is the result of starch breakdown in plants and human starch digestion?
What is the result of starch breakdown in plants and human starch digestion?
What is the purpose of lactose as an excipient?
What is the purpose of lactose as an excipient?
What is the characteristic of oligosaccharides?
What is the characteristic of oligosaccharides?
Which of the following is a characteristic of polysaccharides?
Which of the following is a characteristic of polysaccharides?
What is the main function of storage polysaccharides?
What is the main function of storage polysaccharides?
Which of the following is an example of a structural polysaccharide?
Which of the following is an example of a structural polysaccharide?
What is the main difference between amylose and amylopectin?
What is the main difference between amylose and amylopectin?
Which of the following is a characteristic of acidic polysaccharides?
Which of the following is a characteristic of acidic polysaccharides?
What is the function of chitin in organisms?
What is the function of chitin in organisms?
What is the main difference between glycogen and starch?
What is the main difference between glycogen and starch?
What is the function of hyaluronic acid?
What is the function of hyaluronic acid?
What is the estimated amount of carbon dioxide converted into carbohydrates every day on Earth through photosynthesis?
What is the estimated amount of carbon dioxide converted into carbohydrates every day on Earth through photosynthesis?
What is the primary function of carbohydrates in humans?
What is the primary function of carbohydrates in humans?
What is the general formula for carbohydrates, historically?
What is the general formula for carbohydrates, historically?
What is the structural definition of carbohydrates?
What is the structural definition of carbohydrates?
What is the function of glycogen in humans?
What is the function of glycogen in humans?
Why are carbohydrates important components of cell walls and extracellular structures?
Why are carbohydrates important components of cell walls and extracellular structures?
What is the energy yield from the breakdown of carbohydrates in humans?
What is the energy yield from the breakdown of carbohydrates in humans?
How are carbohydrates classified?
How are carbohydrates classified?
What is the common name of D-Xylose?
What is the common name of D-Xylose?
What is the primary energy source for cells?
What is the primary energy source for cells?
What is the result of oxidizing a monosaccharide with a strong oxidizing agent?
What is the result of oxidizing a monosaccharide with a strong oxidizing agent?
What is the product of the reduction of D-Glucose?
What is the product of the reduction of D-Glucose?
What is the role of D-Galactose in the body?
What is the role of D-Galactose in the body?
What is the result of substituting one hydroxyl group of a monosaccharide with an amino group?
What is the result of substituting one hydroxyl group of a monosaccharide with an amino group?
What is the general term for a monosaccharide acetal?
What is the general term for a monosaccharide acetal?
What is the normal range of glucose levels in blood?
What is the normal range of glucose levels in blood?
Which sugar is commonly found in fruit juices and honey?
Which sugar is commonly found in fruit juices and honey?
What is the result of the oxidation of a primary alcohol in a monosaccharide?
What is the result of the oxidation of a primary alcohol in a monosaccharide?
Which type of diastereomers do not involve symmetry around a double bond or ring?
Which type of diastereomers do not involve symmetry around a double bond or ring?
What is the term used to describe stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other?
What is the term used to describe stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other?
Which type of isomers differ in the position of only one -OH group?
Which type of isomers differ in the position of only one -OH group?
What is the purpose of the Fischer projection formula?
What is the purpose of the Fischer projection formula?
What is the characteristic of anomers?
What is the characteristic of anomers?
What is the characteristic of monosaccharides?
What is the characteristic of monosaccharides?
What is the characteristic of D-glyceraldehyde?
What is the characteristic of D-glyceraldehyde?
What is the primary source of energy for human life?
What is the primary source of energy for human life?
What is the characteristic of D-ribose?
What is the characteristic of D-ribose?
What is the role of carbohydrates in cell recognition?
What is the role of carbohydrates in cell recognition?
What is the estimated daily conversion of carbon dioxide into carbohydrates through photosynthesis?
What is the estimated daily conversion of carbon dioxide into carbohydrates through photosynthesis?
What is the purpose of the Haworth projection formula?
What is the purpose of the Haworth projection formula?
What is the characteristic of D-ribulose?
What is the characteristic of D-ribulose?
What is the characteristic of carbohydrates?
What is the characteristic of carbohydrates?
What is the function of carbohydrates in DNA and RNA molecules?
What is the function of carbohydrates in DNA and RNA molecules?
What is the role of carbohydrates in plant cell walls?
What is the role of carbohydrates in plant cell walls?
What is the historical definition of carbohydrates?
What is the historical definition of carbohydrates?
What is the structural definition of carbohydrates?
What is the structural definition of carbohydrates?
What is the result of replacing the hydroxyl on carbon 2 of glucose with an amino group?
What is the result of replacing the hydroxyl on carbon 2 of glucose with an amino group?
Which disaccharide is composed of D-glucose and D-fructose?
Which disaccharide is composed of D-glucose and D-fructose?
What is the type of bond found in cellobiose?
What is the type of bond found in cellobiose?
What is the common name of lactose?
What is the common name of lactose?
What is the characteristic of oligosaccharides?
What is the characteristic of oligosaccharides?
What determines the blood type of an individual?
What determines the blood type of an individual?
What is the function of lactose in infant formulas?
What is the function of lactose in infant formulas?
What is the characteristic of sucrose?
What is the characteristic of sucrose?
What is the type of glycosidic linkage found in maltose?
What is the type of glycosidic linkage found in maltose?
What is the name of the toxin found in potatoes?
What is the name of the toxin found in potatoes?
What is the main characteristic of storage polysaccharides?
What is the main characteristic of storage polysaccharides?
What is the estimated amount of glucose units in glycogen?
What is the estimated amount of glucose units in glycogen?
What is the function of cellulose in plants?
What is the function of cellulose in plants?
What is the main difference between chitin and cellulose?
What is the main difference between chitin and cellulose?
What is the characteristic of acidic polysaccharides?
What is the characteristic of acidic polysaccharides?
What is the function of hyaluronic acid?
What is the function of hyaluronic acid?
What is the main difference between amylose and amylopectin?
What is the main difference between amylose and amylopectin?
What is the characteristic of glycogen compared to amylopectin?
What is the characteristic of glycogen compared to amylopectin?
What is the term used to describe a sugar molecule containing multiple saccharide units?
What is the term used to describe a sugar molecule containing multiple saccharide units?
What is the condition necessary for chirality to occur in a molecule?
What is the condition necessary for chirality to occur in a molecule?
What is the type of isomerism that involves a difference in connectivity of atoms?
What is the type of isomerism that involves a difference in connectivity of atoms?
What is the characteristic of achiral molecules?
What is the characteristic of achiral molecules?
What is the term used to describe isomers that have the same molecular formula and connectivity but differ in spatial arrangements?
What is the term used to describe isomers that have the same molecular formula and connectivity but differ in spatial arrangements?
What is the characteristic of configurational diastereomers?
What is the characteristic of configurational diastereomers?
What is the term used to describe a molecule that has four different atoms or groups bonded to the carbon?
What is the term used to describe a molecule that has four different atoms or groups bonded to the carbon?
What is the characteristic of enantiomers?
What is the characteristic of enantiomers?
What is the term used to describe isomers that differ in the arrangement of substituents around a double bond or within a ring structure?
What is the term used to describe isomers that differ in the arrangement of substituents around a double bond or within a ring structure?
What is the characteristic of configurational and cis-trans diastereomers?
What is the characteristic of configurational and cis-trans diastereomers?
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Study Notes
Carbohydrates Overview
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth, produced by photosynthetic organisms.
- They are chemically simpler than nucleic acids and proteins, containing only three elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Functions of Carbohydrates in Humans
- Breakdown of carbohydrates provides energy (4 kcal/g) for the body.
- Carbohydrate storage (glycogen) provides a short-term energy reserve.
- Carbohydrates are metabolic precursors of virtually all other biomolecules.
- They are part of the structural framework of DNA and RNA molecules.
- Carbohydrates are important components of cell walls and extracellular structures in plants, animals, and bacteria.
- They are involved in cell recognition and normal cell growth.
Structural Definition of Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones or substances that yield these compounds upon hydrolysis.
- Historically, carbohydrates were named based on their components (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), but some do not fit this formula.
Classification of Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are classified based on the number of saccharide units.
- Monosaccharides contain one saccharide unit, disaccharides contain two, and polysaccharides contain three or more.
Monosaccharides
- Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose.
- Monosaccharides cannot be broken down into simpler units through hydrolysis reactions.
Disaccharides
- Contain two monosaccharide units.
- Examples: sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose.
- Disaccharides are broken down into two monosaccharides through hydrolysis.
Polysaccharides
- Contain three or more monosaccharide units.
- Examples: starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin.
Stereoisomerism
- Stereoisomerism occurs when molecules have the same molecular and structural formulas but different spatial arrangements.
- Subtypes of stereoisomerism: enantiomers and diastereomers.
Chirality
- Chirality occurs when a molecule has a non-superimposable mirror image.
- Chiral molecules can be divided into enantiomers and diastereomers.
Types of Monosaccharides
- Based on the number of carbon atoms: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses.
- Based on the functional group: aldoses and ketoses.
Biochemically Important Monosaccharides
- D-Glucose: a primary energy source for cells, found in blood and urine.
- D-Fructose: a sweetener, found in fruit and honey.
- D-Galactose: a component of glycoproteins in brain and nerve tissue.
Derivatives and Reactions of Monosaccharides
- Oxidation to produce acidic sugar.
- Reduction to produce alcohols.
- Glycoside formation.
- Phosphate ester formation.
- Amino sugar formation.
Disaccharides
- Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose and fructose.
- Lactose: a disaccharide of glucose and galactose.
- Maltose: a disaccharide of two glucose units.
Polysaccharides
- Starch: an energy storage polysaccharide in plants.
- Glycogen: an energy storage polysaccharide in animals.
- Cellulose: a structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls.
- Chitin: a structural polysaccharide in animal exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.
Blood Types and Oligosaccharides
- Oligosaccharides attached to the plasma membrane of red blood cells determine blood type.
- The fifth monosaccharide unit determines the blood type: A, B, AB, or O.
Polysaccharide Division
- Storage polysaccharides: starch and glycogen.
- Structural polysaccharides: cellulose and chitin.
- Acidic polysaccharides: hyaluronic acid and heparin.
Carbohydrates Overview
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth, produced by photosynthetic organisms.
- They are chemically simpler than nucleic acids and proteins, containing only three elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Functions of Carbohydrates in Humans
- Breakdown of carbohydrates provides energy (4 kcal/g) for the body.
- Carbohydrate storage (glycogen) provides a short-term energy reserve.
- Carbohydrates are metabolic precursors of virtually all other biomolecules.
- They are part of the structural framework of DNA and RNA molecules.
- Carbohydrates are important components of cell walls and extracellular structures in plants, animals, and bacteria.
- They are involved in cell recognition and normal cell growth.
Structural Definition of Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones or substances that yield these compounds upon hydrolysis.
- Historically, carbohydrates were named based on their components (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), but some do not fit this formula.
Classification of Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are classified based on the number of saccharide units.
- Monosaccharides contain one saccharide unit, disaccharides contain two, and polysaccharides contain three or more.
Monosaccharides
- Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose.
- Monosaccharides cannot be broken down into simpler units through hydrolysis reactions.
Disaccharides
- Contain two monosaccharide units.
- Examples: sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose.
- Disaccharides are broken down into two monosaccharides through hydrolysis.
Polysaccharides
- Contain three or more monosaccharide units.
- Examples: starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin.
Stereoisomerism
- Stereoisomerism occurs when molecules have the same molecular and structural formulas but different spatial arrangements.
- Subtypes of stereoisomerism: enantiomers and diastereomers.
Chirality
- Chirality occurs when a molecule has a non-superimposable mirror image.
- Chiral molecules can be divided into enantiomers and diastereomers.
Types of Monosaccharides
- Based on the number of carbon atoms: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses.
- Based on the functional group: aldoses and ketoses.
Biochemically Important Monosaccharides
- D-Glucose: a primary energy source for cells, found in blood and urine.
- D-Fructose: a sweetener, found in fruit and honey.
- D-Galactose: a component of glycoproteins in brain and nerve tissue.
Derivatives and Reactions of Monosaccharides
- Oxidation to produce acidic sugar.
- Reduction to produce alcohols.
- Glycoside formation.
- Phosphate ester formation.
- Amino sugar formation.
Disaccharides
- Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose and fructose.
- Lactose: a disaccharide of glucose and galactose.
- Maltose: a disaccharide of two glucose units.
Polysaccharides
- Starch: an energy storage polysaccharide in plants.
- Glycogen: an energy storage polysaccharide in animals.
- Cellulose: a structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls.
- Chitin: a structural polysaccharide in animal exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.
Blood Types and Oligosaccharides
- Oligosaccharides attached to the plasma membrane of red blood cells determine blood type.
- The fifth monosaccharide unit determines the blood type: A, B, AB, or O.
Polysaccharide Division
- Storage polysaccharides: starch and glycogen.
- Structural polysaccharides: cellulose and chitin.
- Acidic polysaccharides: hyaluronic acid and heparin.
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