CHEMLEC: Carbohydrates

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Questions and Answers

What is the term used to describe a sugar molecule containing one saccharide unit?

Disaccharide

Polysaccharide

Monosaccharide (correct)

Oligosaccharide

Which of the following is an example of a disaccharide?

Sucrose (correct)

Inulin

Glucose

Starch

What is the term used to describe a molecule whose mirror images are not superimposable?

Chiral molecule (correct)

Enantiomer

Diastereomer

Achiral molecule

What is the condition for chirality in ring systems?

The two substituents attached to the carbon atom are different. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of isomerism involves a difference in spatial arrangement without involving cis-trans isomerism?

Configurational diastereomers Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe isomers that are mirror images of each other?

Enantiomers Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe isomers that differ in the arrangement of substituents around a double bond or within a ring structure?

Cis-trans diastereomers Signup and view all the answers

What is the key difference between configurational and cis-trans diastereomers?

Number of chiral centers Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a polysaccharide?

Starch Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe a molecule with four different atoms or groups bonded to the carbon?

Chiral center Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of enantiomers?

They are non-superimposable mirror images. Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of diastereomers?

Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of Fischer projection formula?

To show the spatial arrangement of groups about chiral centers. Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of epimers?

They differ in the position of only one -OH group. Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of anomers?

They are isomers that differ in configuration about the carbonyl carbon. Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of monosaccharides?

They contain a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit. Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of D-glyceraldehyde?

It is an aldose. Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of D-ribose?

It is a component of RNA molecules. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of ribose phosphates?

They are intermediates in the Pentose Phosphate Pathway. Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of diastereomers?

They are stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other. Signup and view all the answers

What is the normal glucose level in blood?

70-100 mg/dL Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following sugars is commonly found in fruit juices and honey?

D-Fructose Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of oxidizing a monosaccharide with a strong oxidizing agent?

Aldaric acid Signup and view all the answers

What is the product of the reduction of D-Glucose?

D-Glucitol Signup and view all the answers

What is the general term for a monosaccharide acetal?

Glycoside Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of D-Galactose in the body?

Component of glycoproteins in brain and nerve tissue Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a phosphate ester?

α-D-Glucose 1-phosphate Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the oxidation of a primary alcohol in a monosaccharide?

Formation of an aldehyde Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of D-Glucose and L-Glucose?

D-Glucose is sweet and nutritious, while L-Glucose is tasteless and not usable by the body Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the substitution of one hydroxyl group of a monosaccharide with an amino group?

Formation of an amino sugar Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of lactose hydrolysis by lactase?

Galactose and Glucose Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of bond found in maltose?

α-(1,4) bond Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of lactose in infant formulas?

To simulate mother's milk Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between sucrose and other disaccharides?

It has an α,β(1:2) bond Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the toxin found in potatoes?

Solanine Signup and view all the answers

What determines the blood type of an individual?

The presence or absence of a fifth monosaccharide unit Signup and view all the answers

What is the general term for polysaccharides?

Glycan Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of starch breakdown in plants and human starch digestion?

Maltose Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of lactose as an excipient?

As a filler or filler-binder Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of oligosaccharides?

Contain three to ten monosaccharide units Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of polysaccharides?

They have limited water solubility and can be hydrolyzed. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of storage polysaccharides?

To act as a source of energy in cells Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a structural polysaccharide?

Cellulose Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between amylose and amylopectin?

Amylose is straight-chained while amylopectin is branched Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of acidic polysaccharides?

They contain a disaccharide repeating unit with an amino sugar Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of chitin in organisms?

To provide rigidity to exoskeletons Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between glycogen and starch?

Glycogen is more branched than starch Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of hyaluronic acid?

No specific function mentioned in the content Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated amount of carbon dioxide converted into carbohydrates every day on Earth through photosynthesis?

250 billion kilograms Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of carbohydrates in humans?

To provide energy for the human body Signup and view all the answers

What is the general formula for carbohydrates, historically?

Cn(H2O)m Signup and view all the answers

What is the structural definition of carbohydrates?

Polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones or substances that yield these compounds upon hydrolysis Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of glycogen in humans?

To provide short-term energy reserve Signup and view all the answers

Why are carbohydrates important components of cell walls and extracellular structures?

Because they provide structural support Signup and view all the answers

What is the energy yield from the breakdown of carbohydrates in humans?

4 kcal/g Signup and view all the answers

How are carbohydrates classified?

Based on their number of saccharide units Signup and view all the answers

What is the common name of D-Xylose?

Wood sugar Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary energy source for cells?

D-Glucose Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of oxidizing a monosaccharide with a strong oxidizing agent?

Aldaric acid Signup and view all the answers

What is the product of the reduction of D-Glucose?

D-Glucitol Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of D-Galactose in the body?

Component of glycoproteins in brain and nerve tissue Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of substituting one hydroxyl group of a monosaccharide with an amino group?

Amino sugar Signup and view all the answers

What is the general term for a monosaccharide acetal?

Glycoside Signup and view all the answers

What is the normal range of glucose levels in blood?

70-100 mg/dL Signup and view all the answers

Which sugar is commonly found in fruit juices and honey?

D-Fructose Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the oxidation of a primary alcohol in a monosaccharide?

Aldehyde Signup and view all the answers

Which type of diastereomers do not involve symmetry around a double bond or ring?

Configurational diastereomers Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other?

Diastereomers Signup and view all the answers

Which type of isomers differ in the position of only one -OH group?

Epimers Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the Fischer projection formula?

To show the spatial arrangement of groups about chiral centers Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of anomers?

They are stereoisomers that differ in configuration about the carbonyl carbon Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of monosaccharides?

They contain a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of D-glyceraldehyde?

It is an aldotriose Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary source of energy for human life?

Carbohydrate breakdown Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of D-ribose?

It is a component of RNA molecules Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of carbohydrates in cell recognition?

Recognizing cellular structures Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated daily conversion of carbon dioxide into carbohydrates through photosynthesis?

250 billion kilograms Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the Haworth projection formula?

To show the cyclic structure of monosaccharides Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of D-ribulose?

It is formed in metabolic processes Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of carbohydrates?

Contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of carbohydrates in DNA and RNA molecules?

Forming part of the structural framework Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of carbohydrates in plant cell walls?

Forming part of the structural framework Signup and view all the answers

What is the historical definition of carbohydrates?

Cn(H2O)m Signup and view all the answers

What is the structural definition of carbohydrates?

Polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of replacing the hydroxyl on carbon 2 of glucose with an amino group?

D-Glucosamine Signup and view all the answers

Which disaccharide is composed of D-glucose and D-fructose?

Sucrose Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of bond found in cellobiose?

β-(1,4) bond Signup and view all the answers

What is the common name of lactose?

Milk sugar Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of oligosaccharides?

Carbohydrates containing three to ten monosaccharide units Signup and view all the answers

What determines the blood type of an individual?

The fifth monosaccharide unit attached to the plasma membrane of red blood cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of lactose in infant formulas?

To simulate mother's milk Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of sucrose?

It has an α,β(1:2) glycosidic bond Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of glycosidic linkage found in maltose?

α-(1,4) bond Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the toxin found in potatoes?

Solanine Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of storage polysaccharides?

Serving as energy sources in cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated amount of glucose units in glycogen?

Up to 1,000,000 Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of cellulose in plants?

Providing structural support to plant cell walls Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between chitin and cellulose?

Chitin contains N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, while cellulose contains glucose Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of acidic polysaccharides?

They contain a disaccharide repeating unit with an amino sugar Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of hyaluronic acid?

Providing lubrication and cushioning to joints Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between amylose and amylopectin?

Amylose is straight-chain, while amylopectin is branched Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of glycogen compared to amylopectin?

Glycogen is more branched than amylopectin Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe a sugar molecule containing multiple saccharide units?

Polysaccharide Signup and view all the answers

What is the condition necessary for chirality to occur in a molecule?

The molecule has four different atoms or groups bonded to the carbon Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of isomerism that involves a difference in connectivity of atoms?

Constitutional isomers Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of achiral molecules?

Their mirror images are superimposable Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe isomers that have the same molecular formula and connectivity but differ in spatial arrangements?

Stereoisomers Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of configurational diastereomers?

They differ in spatial arrangements without involving cis-trans isomerism Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe a molecule that has four different atoms or groups bonded to the carbon?

Chiral molecule Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of enantiomers?

They have identical physical properties except for the direction they rotate plane-polarized light Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe isomers that differ in the arrangement of substituents around a double bond or within a ring structure?

Cis-trans diastereomers Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of configurational and cis-trans diastereomers?

They have different physical properties Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Carbohydrates Overview

Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth, produced by photosynthetic organisms.
They are chemically simpler than nucleic acids and proteins, containing only three elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Functions of Carbohydrates in Humans

Breakdown of carbohydrates provides energy (4 kcal/g) for the body.
Carbohydrate storage (glycogen) provides a short-term energy reserve.
Carbohydrates are metabolic precursors of virtually all other biomolecules.
They are part of the structural framework of DNA and RNA molecules.
Carbohydrates are important components of cell walls and extracellular structures in plants, animals, and bacteria.
They are involved in cell recognition and normal cell growth.

Structural Definition of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones or substances that yield these compounds upon hydrolysis.
Historically, carbohydrates were named based on their components (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), but some do not fit this formula.

Classification of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are classified based on the number of saccharide units.
Monosaccharides contain one saccharide unit, disaccharides contain two, and polysaccharides contain three or more.

Monosaccharides

Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose.
Monosaccharides cannot be broken down into simpler units through hydrolysis reactions.

Disaccharides

Contain two monosaccharide units.
Examples: sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose.
Disaccharides are broken down into two monosaccharides through hydrolysis.

Polysaccharides

Contain three or more monosaccharide units.
Examples: starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin.

Stereoisomerism

Stereoisomerism occurs when molecules have the same molecular and structural formulas but different spatial arrangements.
Subtypes of stereoisomerism: enantiomers and diastereomers.

Chirality

Chirality occurs when a molecule has a non-superimposable mirror image.
Chiral molecules can be divided into enantiomers and diastereomers.

Types of Monosaccharides

Based on the number of carbon atoms: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses.
Based on the functional group: aldoses and ketoses.

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

D-Glucose: a primary energy source for cells, found in blood and urine.
D-Fructose: a sweetener, found in fruit and honey.
D-Galactose: a component of glycoproteins in brain and nerve tissue.

Derivatives and Reactions of Monosaccharides

Oxidation to produce acidic sugar.
Reduction to produce alcohols.
Glycoside formation.
Phosphate ester formation.
Amino sugar formation.

Disaccharides

Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose and fructose.
Lactose: a disaccharide of glucose and galactose.
Maltose: a disaccharide of two glucose units.

Polysaccharides

Starch: an energy storage polysaccharide in plants.
Glycogen: an energy storage polysaccharide in animals.
Cellulose: a structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls.
Chitin: a structural polysaccharide in animal exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.

Blood Types and Oligosaccharides

Oligosaccharides attached to the plasma membrane of red blood cells determine blood type.
The fifth monosaccharide unit determines the blood type: A, B, AB, or O.

Polysaccharide Division

Storage polysaccharides: starch and glycogen.
Structural polysaccharides: cellulose and chitin.
Acidic polysaccharides: hyaluronic acid and heparin.

Carbohydrates Overview

Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth, produced by photosynthetic organisms.
They are chemically simpler than nucleic acids and proteins, containing only three elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Functions of Carbohydrates in Humans

Breakdown of carbohydrates provides energy (4 kcal/g) for the body.
Carbohydrate storage (glycogen) provides a short-term energy reserve.
Carbohydrates are metabolic precursors of virtually all other biomolecules.
They are part of the structural framework of DNA and RNA molecules.
Carbohydrates are important components of cell walls and extracellular structures in plants, animals, and bacteria.
They are involved in cell recognition and normal cell growth.

Structural Definition of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones or substances that yield these compounds upon hydrolysis.
Historically, carbohydrates were named based on their components (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), but some do not fit this formula.

Classification of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are classified based on the number of saccharide units.
Monosaccharides contain one saccharide unit, disaccharides contain two, and polysaccharides contain three or more.

Monosaccharides

Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose.
Monosaccharides cannot be broken down into simpler units through hydrolysis reactions.

Disaccharides

Contain two monosaccharide units.
Examples: sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose.
Disaccharides are broken down into two monosaccharides through hydrolysis.

Polysaccharides

Contain three or more monosaccharide units.
Examples: starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin.

Stereoisomerism

Stereoisomerism occurs when molecules have the same molecular and structural formulas but different spatial arrangements.
Subtypes of stereoisomerism: enantiomers and diastereomers.

Chirality

Chirality occurs when a molecule has a non-superimposable mirror image.
Chiral molecules can be divided into enantiomers and diastereomers.

Types of Monosaccharides

Based on the number of carbon atoms: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses.
Based on the functional group: aldoses and ketoses.

Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

D-Glucose: a primary energy source for cells, found in blood and urine.
D-Fructose: a sweetener, found in fruit and honey.
D-Galactose: a component of glycoproteins in brain and nerve tissue.

Derivatives and Reactions of Monosaccharides

Oxidation to produce acidic sugar.
Reduction to produce alcohols.
Glycoside formation.
Phosphate ester formation.
Amino sugar formation.

Disaccharides

Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose and fructose.
Lactose: a disaccharide of glucose and galactose.
Maltose: a disaccharide of two glucose units.

Polysaccharides

Starch: an energy storage polysaccharide in plants.
Glycogen: an energy storage polysaccharide in animals.
Cellulose: a structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls.
Chitin: a structural polysaccharide in animal exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.

Blood Types and Oligosaccharides

Oligosaccharides attached to the plasma membrane of red blood cells determine blood type.
The fifth monosaccharide unit determines the blood type: A, B, AB, or O.

Polysaccharide Division

Storage polysaccharides: starch and glycogen.
Structural polysaccharides: cellulose and chitin.
Acidic polysaccharides: hyaluronic acid and heparin.

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Test your knowledge of fundamental organic chemistry concepts, including saccharides, isomerism, and chirality.