Organic Chemistry and the Carbon Atom
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Questions and Answers

What is the charge of phosphate at typical pH levels in living organisms?

  • Weakly acidic
  • Neutral
  • Positively charged
  • Negatively charged (correct)

    • Which of the following components can sulfate be attached to?

  • Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (correct)
  • Lipids, nucleic acids, and fatty acids
  • DNA, RNA, and ATP
  • Proteins, carbohydrates, and triglycerides

    • Which statement accurately describes the structure of phosphate?

  • A central phosphorus atom is double-bonded to one oxygen and single-bonded to two anions. (correct)
  • A central phosphorus atom is surrounded by four sulfur atoms.
  • A central phosphorus atom is double-bonded to two oxygen atoms.
  • A central phosphorus atom is single-bonded to three carbon atoms.

    • What type of molecular character do both phosphate and sulfate share?

    <p>They are both polar and negatively charged at typical pH of living organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the oxidation state of sulfur in sulfate?

    <p>+6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the science that deals with carbon-containing molecules called?

    <p>Organic Chemistry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many electrons does carbon need to fill its outer shell?

    <p>4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which functional group is known to be weakly basic and can accept protons?

    <p>Amino</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding the synthesis of organic compounds?

    <p>Organic compounds were once thought to require a vital force for their synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of nonpolar bonds in organic molecules?

    <p>They are typically hydrocarbons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes macromolecules from smaller organic molecules?

    <p>Macromolecules are large and complex.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about functional groups is correct?

    <p>Each functional group exhibits the same properties in all molecules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of carbon in forming organic molecules?

    <p>Carbon can make up to four bonds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of motor proteins in the body?

    <p>Initiate movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of protein is responsible for transporting glucose into cells?

    <p>Transporters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do antibodies play in the immune system?

    <p>Help destroy bacteria or viruses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein type is involved in cell communication, particularly regarding taste?

    <p>Cell-signaling proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does myosin contribute to muscle function?

    <p>It provides the contractile force of muscles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of glycerol in the formation of fats?

    <p>It forms an ester bond with fatty acids.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecular structure represents a distinct type of isomer?

    <p>Cis-trans isomers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are disaccharides formed?

    <p>By dehydration reactions between two monosaccharides.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond is formed between two amino acids?

    <p>Peptide bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes saturated fatty acids from unsaturated fatty acids?

    <p>Saturated fatty acids contain the maximum number of hydrogens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the major components of lipids?

    <p>Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a defining feature of phospholipids?

    <p>They have a polar phosphoric acid head.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly defines stereoisomers?

    <p>Identical bonding relationships but different spatial positioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the functional role of enzymes in biological reactions involving polymers?

    <p>Enzymes catalyze dehydration and hydrolysis reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule is produced when two monosaccharides are linked together?

    <p>Maltose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reaction occurs during the breakdown of a polymer?

    <p>Hydrolysis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major component of the backbone of nucleic acids?

    <p>Nucleotides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic best describes trans fats?

    <p>They are linked to health risks and diseases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following molecules would be classified as a polysaccharide?

    <p>Glycogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond is formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another?

    <p>Peptide bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure level of proteins is characterized by a specific sequence of amino acids?

    <p>Primary structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the final level of structure for a single polypeptide chain?

    <p>Tertiary structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a factor that promotes protein folding and stability?

    <p>Covalent bonding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the primary structure of a protein?

    <p>The sequence of DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following interactions primarily facilitates protein-protein interactions?

    <p>Hydrophobic effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Anfinsen's experiments demonstrated that the primary structure of ribonuclease influences what aspect of its functionality?

    <p>Three-dimensional structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is associated with folding patterns such as α helices and β pleated sheets?

    <p>Secondary structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are polypeptides primarily formed through?

    <p>Dehydration reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which level of protein structure is defined by multiple polypeptide chains coming together?

    <p>Quaternary structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of phosphate groups in biological systems?

    <p>They are weakly acidic and can donate protons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structural characteristic defines the sulfate group?

    <p>It contains a central sulfur atom with specific bonding patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At typical pH levels in living organisms, what is the charge of sulfate?

    <p>Negatively charged due to extra electrons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which type of biological molecules can phosphate groups primarily be found?

    <p>Nucleic acids and ATP.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common application of phosphate in biological processes?

    <p>Serving as a primary energy source.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of functional group is characterized by a carbon atom bonded to a hydroxyl group and a double-bonded oxygen atom?

    <p>Carboxyl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which functional group is known to be polar and capable of forming hydrogen bonds?

    <p>Hydroxyl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding ketones and aldehydes?

    <p>Aldehydes have hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbonyl carbon.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a carboxyl group?

    <p>It is acidic and donates H+ ions in water.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which functional group typically contributes to the structural components of steroids and waxes?

    <p>Carbonyl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the hydroxyl group contribute to the characteristics of alcohol?

    <p>It enhances the compound's hydrophilicity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which functional group is commonly found in amino acids and plays a critical role in peptide bonds?

    <p>Carboxyl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which property distinguishes the carbonyl group in ketones as highly chemically reactive?

    <p>It has a double bond with oxygen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of isomers have identical bonding relationships but differ in spatial positioning?

    <p>Stereoisomers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the process of polymer formation through dehydration reactions?

    <p>It results in the formation of a larger molecule plus water.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the composition of lipids?

    <p>Mainly carbon, hydrogen, and a little oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of phospholipids in biological membranes?

    <p>Form barriers to separate different environments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these proteins is involved in synthesizing polypeptides from mRNA?

    <p>Enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which fatty acids are generally solid at room temperature?

    <p>Saturated fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond is formed when two monosaccharides join together?

    <p>Glycosidic bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hydrocarbon structure characterizes steroids?

    <p>Four interconnected rings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of carbohydrates consists of many monosaccharides linked together?

    <p>Polysaccharides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes cis-trans isomers?

    <p>Varying orientations around a double bond</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of saturated fats?

    <p>Have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of enzymes in hydrolysis reactions?

    <p>To catalyze the breakdown of polymers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which functional group is responsible for forming disulfide bridges in proteins?

    <p>Sulfhydryl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What forms the building blocks of proteins?

    <p>Amino acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What conclusion can be drawn from Anfinsen's Ribonuclease experiment?

    <p>Proteins can refold into functional structures without cellular factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes the composition of DNA?

    <p>Double-stranded structure utilizing deoxyribose and thymine.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature characterizes RNA as compared to DNA?

    <p>It contains the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do the different domains of proteins, such as nuclear receptors, serve?

    <p>Each domain contributes to a unique biological function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly distinguishes purines from pyrimidines?

    <p>Adenine and guanine are purines, while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of nucleotides in nucleic acids?

    <p>They act as building blocks that form a polymer structure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are the base pairs of DNA structured?

    <p>Adenine pairs with thymine, while cytosine pairs with guanine.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept did Anfinsen's hypothesis primarily focus on regarding proteins?

    <p>Proteins contain all the information necessary for their own folding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of RNA?

    <p>It directly stores genetic information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the N-terminus of a polypeptide?

    <p>The free amino group of a polypeptide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor contributes to protein folding and stability?

    <p>Hydrogen bonds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which level of protein structure is primarily characterized by hydrogen bonds and ionic interactions?

    <p>Secondary structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the tertiary structure of a protein represent?

    <p>The overall three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do individual polypeptide chains in quaternary structure interact?

    <p>Through hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes primary structure?

    <p>It is the sequence of amino acids in a protein.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of disulfide bridges in protein structure?

    <p>Connect two cysteine side chains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following determines the primary structure of a protein?

    <p>The genetic code in DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do proteins play in cellular processes?

    <p>They can interact with other proteins in various cellular functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the assembly of protein structures, which factors primarily facilitate protein-protein interactions?

    <p>Hydrogen bonds and ionic interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    The Carbon Atom

    • Organic molecules contain carbon
    • Organic molecules are abundant in living organisms
    • Macromolecules are large, complex organic molecules

    Organic Chemistry

    • Organic chemistry is the science of carbon-containing molecules
    • Vitalism was a 19th-century concept that organic molecules were created by and imparted with a vital life force within a plant or animal’s body

    Carbon

    • Carbon has 4 electrons in its outer shell, needing 4 more to fill it
    • Carbon can make up to four bonds, usually single or double bonds
    • Carbon can form nonpolar or polar bonds
      • Molecules with polar bonds are water soluble
      • Molecules with nonpolar bonds (like hydrocarbons) are not very water soluble

    Functional Groups

    • Groups of atoms with special chemical features that are functionally important
    • Each type of functional group exhibits the same properties in all molecules in which it occurs

    Isomers

    • Two molecules with an identical molecular formula but different structures and characteristics
    • Structural isomers contain the same atoms but in different bonding relationships
    • Stereoisomers have identical bonding relationships, but the spatial positioning of the atoms differs in the two isomers
      • Cis-trans isomers have a different positioning around a double bond
      • Enantiomers are mirror image molecules
        • Difference in orientation leads to different binding abilities
        • Enzymes that recognize one enantiomer usually do not recognize the other

    Synthesis and Breakdown of Organic Molecules and Macromolecules

    • Macromolecules are composed of thousands or millions of atoms
    • Polymers are formed by linking monomers
    • A condensation reaction produces a larger organic molecule plus a water molecule

    Polymer Formation by Dehydration (Condensation) Reactions

    • A water molecule is removed each time a new monomer is added
    • The process repeats to form long polymers
    • A polymer can consist of thousands of monomers
    • Dehydration is catalyzed by enzymes

    Breakdown of a Polymer by Hydrolysis Reactions

    • A water molecule is added back each time a monomer is released
    • The process repeats to break down long polymers
    • Hydrolysis is catalyzed by enzymes

    Four Major Classes of Organic Molecules Found in Living Cells

    • Carbohydrates
    • Lipids
    • Proteins
    • Nucleic acids

    Carbohydrates

    • Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms
    • Most of the carbon atoms in a carbohydrate are linked to a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group
    • The general formula is Cn(H2O)n

    Monosaccharides

    • Simplest sugars
    • Most common are 5 or 6 carbons
      • Pentoses: Ribose (C5H10O5) and Deoxyribose (C5H10O4)
      • Hexose: Glucose (C6H12O6)

    Glucose Isomers

    • Stereoisomers of glucose are α- and β-glucose, where the hydroxyl group of carbon 1 is above or below the ring
    • D- and L-glucose are enantiomers with mirror image structures
      • D-glucose is commonly found in living cells
      • L-glucose is rarely found in living cells
    • Galactose is a glucose isomer where the hydroxyl group on carbon 4 of glucose is above the plane of the ring instead of below it

    Disaccharides

    • Composed of two monosaccharides
    • Joined by a dehydration or condensation reaction, forming a glycosidic bond
    • Examples: sucrose, maltose, lactose

    Polysaccharides

    • Many monosaccharides linked together to form long polymers
    • Examples:
      • Energy storage: starch, glycogen
      • Structural: cellulose, chitin, glycosaminoglycans, peptidoglycan

    Lipids

    • Composed predominantly of hydrogen and carbon atoms, and some oxygen
    • Defining feature of lipids is that they are nonpolar and very insoluble in water
    • Include fats, phospholipids, steroids, waxes.
    • Lipids comprise about 40% of the organic matter in the average human body

    Fats

    • Also known as triglycerides
    • Formed by bonding glycerol to 3 fatty acids
    • Joined by dehydration, forming an ester bond

    Fatty Acids

    • Saturated: All carbons have the maximal amount of hydrogens, tend to be solid at room temperature
    • Unsaturated: Contain one or more double bonds, tend to be liquid at room temperature (known as oils)
      • Cis forms naturally
      • Trans forms artificially
      • Trans fats are linked to disease

    Fats

    • Fats are important for energy storage, 1 gram of fat stores more energy than 1 gram of glycogen or starch
    • Fats can also be structural, providing cushioning and insulation

    Phospholipids

    • Formed from glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group
    • Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules
      • Phosphate head is polar and hydrophilic
      • Fatty acid tail is nonpolar and hydrophobic

    Steroids

    • Four interconnected rings of carbon atoms
    • Usually insoluble in water
    • Example: Cholesterol
    • Tiny differences in structure can lead to profoundly different, specific biological properties, such as estrogen versus testosterone

    Waxes

    • Many plants and animals produce lipids called waxes that are secreted onto their surface
    • May contain hundreds of different compounds but all contain one or more hydrocarbons and long structures that resemble a fatty acid attached by its carboxyl group to another long hydrocarbon chain
    • Very nonpolar, forming a barrier to water loss

    Proteins

    • Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and small amounts of other elements, notably sulfur
    • The building blocks of proteins are amino acids, 20 different amino acids
    • Each amino acid has a common structure with a variable sidechain that determines structure and function

    Polypeptide Formation

    • Amino acids are joined by a dehydration reaction, where the carboxy + amino forms a peptide bond
    • Polymers of amino acids are known as polypeptides
    • The free amino group of a polypeptide is the N-terminus
    • The free carboxyl end is the C-terminus
    • Proteins may be formed from one or several polypeptides

    Proteins Have a Hierarchy of Structure

    • Four progressive levels:
      • Primary
      • Secondary
      • Tertiary
      • Quaternary

    Primary Structure

    • The amino acid sequence of a protein
    • It is determined by genes

    Secondary Structure

    • Chemical and physical interactions cause protein folding
    • Forms α helices and β pleated sheets
      • These are key determinants of a protein’s characteristics

    Tertiary Structure

    • Folding gives a protein its complex 3D shape
    • This is the final level of structure for a single polypeptide chain

    Quaternary Structure

    • Made up of two or more polypeptides
      • Individual polypeptide chains are protein subunits
    • A protein can be formed from several copies of the same polypeptide

    Five Factors That Promote Protein Folding and Stability

    • Hydrogen bonds
    • Ionic bonds and other polar interactions
    • Hydrophobic effects
    • Van der Waals forces - link the –SH groups in two cysteine side chains together

    Protein-Protein Interactions

    • Many cellular processes involve steps in which two or more different proteins interact
    • Specific binding at the surface of proteins uses the following four factors:
      • Hydrogen bonds
      • Ionic bonds and other polar interactions
      • Hydrophobic effects
      • Van der Waals forces

    Anfinsen Showed That the Primary Structure of Ribonuclease Determines Its Three-Dimensional Structure

    • Prior to the 1960s, the mechanisms by which proteins assume their 3D structures were not understood.

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