Organic Chemistry: Alkanes and Reactions

Substituents that contain atoms other than carbon and hydrogen, such as Cl, Br, I, NH2, NO2, OH, and CN.

Substituents that consist of alkyl groups, which are chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They have the general formula CnH2n-1.

When naming a compound with multiple substituents, the substituents are listed in alphabetical order.

The position of each substituent in the parent chain is indicated by the lowest possible number.

If a substituent is present multiple times, Greek prefixes (di, tri, tetra, etc.) are used to indicate the number of occurrences.

The process of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals. These hybrid orbitals have equal energies and directional properties, and they optimize the overlap of orbitals, leading to stronger and more stable bonds.

A single covalent bond formed by the direct overlap of two atomic orbitals, one from each participating atom. It is symmetrical and has the highest electron density along the axis connecting the two nuclei.

In CCl4, carbon forms four identical C-Cl bonds due to sp3 hybridization, where one 2s and three 2p orbitals combine to create four equivalent sp3 hybrid orbitals. Each sp3 orbital overlaps with a chlorine 3p atomic orbital, forming a strong sigma bond. These sp3 orbitals are oriented tetrahedrally, explaining the tetrahedral geometry of CCl4.

Carbon has two unpaired electrons in its ground state, but it can form four bonds due to the promotion of one 2s electron to a 2p orbital. This creates four unpaired electrons, allowing carbon to form four covalent bonds.

sp3-sp3 C-C sigma bonds are formed by the overlap of two sp3 hybrid orbitals, one from each carbon atom. The bond formed is a symmetrical and strong sigma bond.

Substituents are atoms or groups of atoms attached to the main carbon chain of an organic molecule.

Inorganic substituents are groups that do not contain carbon. They are typically named using prefixes like chloro, bromo, and nitro.

Organic substituents are groups that contain carbon. They are primarily alkyl groups, such as methyl (CH₃) and ethyl (CH₂CH₃).

The parent structure is the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in a molecule. The name of the parent structure determines the base name of the compound.

The position of a substituent is indicated by a number, which tells you where on the parent chain it is located.

Substituents are listed in alphabetical order, regardless of whether they are inorganic or organic.

Greek prefixes (di, tri, tetra, etc.) are used to indicate the number of times a particular substituent appears in the molecule.

The IUPAC name of a molecule is formed by combining the parent structure name with the names and locations of all substituents.

The process of naming organic compounds using a systematic set of rules.

The longest continuous carbon chain in a molecule, determining the base name of the compound.

Branches or substituents attached to the parent chain, named and numbered according to their position.

The position of a substituent on the parent chain, indicated by a number.

A type of organic compound containing a single bond between carbon atoms, forming a straight or branched chain.

The tendency of a substance to vaporize, or change from a liquid to a gas.

As the length of the carbon chain in an alkane increases, the boiling point also increases. This is because stronger van der Waals forces exist between the larger molecules.

Branching in alkane molecules decreases the boiling point. This is because branching reduces the surface area for intermolecular interactions, leading to weaker van der Waals forces.

The strength of the intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces) between alkane molecules determines their volatility. Stronger forces mean lower volatility.

Volatility increases with increased branching in alkane molecules. This is because branching reduces the strength of van der Waals forces, making it easier for molecules to escape into the gas phase.

Alkanes are not soluble in water due to their non-polar nature and the strong hydrogen bonding in water molecules. The weak interactions between alkanes and water are not enough to overcome the energy required to break the hydrogen bonds in water.

Alkanes are soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene and ether because they both have similar van der Waals forces, allowing for stronger intermolecular interactions.

The physical state of an alkane is determined by its chain length. Short-chain alkanes (C1-C4) are gases, medium-chain alkanes (C5-C18) are liquids, and long-chain alkanes (C19 and above) are solids at room temperature.

The boiling point of an alkane increases as the chain length increases. This is due to the stronger van der Waals forces that exist between longer chains.

All alkanes are colorless in their pure state because they do not absorb visible light.

Reactions where two or more molecules combine to form a single product, typically involving the addition of a molecule across an unsaturated bond.

Reactions where atoms are removed from a molecule, often creating a double or triple bond in the product.

A chemical reaction where one atom or group is replaced by another atom or group in a molecule.

A chemical reaction that involves the addition of a hydrogen molecule to a molecule, typically an unsaturated molecule, to form a saturated molecule.

A chemical reaction that involves the removal of water from a molecule, often resulting in the formation of a double or triple bond in the molecule.

A chemical reaction in which an atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms. Examples include halogenation reactions where a halogen atom replaces a hydrogen atom, and hydrolysis where a hydroxyl group replaces a halogen atom.

Alkanes are generally unreactive due to the strong covalent bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms (C-H & C-C bonds). These bonds are nonpolar, meaning there's no readily available electron for reactions.

In distillation, hexane will vaporize first because it has a lower boiling point. This is due to its smaller size resulting in weaker van der Waals forces compared to heptane.

Alkanes undergo substitution reactions where one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another. This is possible due to the high energy required to break the strong C-H and C-C bonds, leading to the substitution of a hydrogen atom with another atom or group.

The main reaction in organic chemistry are: Addition, elimination, and rearrangement. These reactions involve altering the structure of organic molecules by adding or removing atoms or groups.

One electron from the bonding pair is transferred to each atom, forming highly reactive free radicals.

All bonding electrons are transferred to one atom, usually the more electronegative one, creating ions.

The breaking of a covalent bond where the electron pair moves completely to one atom, forming a carbocation and an anion. 

The breaking of a covalent bond where each atom receives one electron, forming two free radicals.

The process where a covalent bond is broken, resulting in the formation of either ions or free radicals.

A reaction that proceeds through a series of steps involving reactive intermediates, particularly free radicals. It is characterized by a chain initiation, propagation, and termination process. These reactions typically produce a variety of products, and their speed can be influenced by factors like light, temperature, and the presence of inhibitors.

The first step in a chain reaction where free radicals are formed from stable molecules. This usually requires external energy, such as sunlight, to break bonds and generate reactive species.

A chlorine atom with an unpaired electron, making it highly reactive. These are formed during the initiation step and are responsible for propagating the chain reaction.

A step in a chain reaction where free radicals react with molecules, creating new free radicals that continue the reaction. This process involves the transfer of atoms or groups between molecules.

The final steps in a chain reaction where free radicals combine to form stable molecules, ending the chain reaction. This can occur through various combinations of radicals.