Optics Laws and Effects

Rayleigh's Law

• Rays with a shorter wavelength scatter much more

Bouguer's Law

• The same portion of a light wave's energy flux is absorbed regardless of its absolute value

Optical Density and Transmittance

• Optical density decreases as transmittance increases
• Optical density increases as transmittance decreases

Absorption of White Light

• White light absorption as it passes through matter is selective

Nephelometry

• Nephelometry is based on light scattering

Polarized Light

• Polarized light passing through optically active substances causes polarization plane rotation

Surfactants

• Surfactants reduce the energy of the surface layer, which decreases surface tension

Wetting Liquid in Cylindrical Tube

• A wetting liquid in a cylindrical tube forms a concave meniscus

Ultrasound Absorption

• Ultrasound is well absorbed in solid media

Mechanical Effect of Ultrasound

• The mechanical effect of ultrasound on biological tissues involves vibrations of tissue particles

Thermal Effect of Ultrasound

• The thermal effect of ultrasound on body tissues involves mutual friction of particles

Ultrasound Shadow Images

• Shadow images of internal organs can be obtained using ultrasound reflection

Petroleum Jelly in Ultrasound

• The surface of an ultrasound emitter gets smeared with petroleum jelly to exclude the air layer

Respiratory Sounds

• The sound made by respiratory organs is noise

Photoelectric Effect

• The photoelectric effect causes emission of electrons and changes in electrical conductivity

Photoelectronic Devices

• Electrovacuum or semiconductor devices based on the photoelectric effect are called photoelectronic

Light Flux

• Light flux is the average power of radiation energy, estimated by the light sensation

Luminance

• Luminance is the ratio of light flux emitted by a luminous surface to the area of that surface

Illumination

• Illumination is the ratio of the flow falling on a given surface to the area of the surface

Internal Photoelectric Effect

• The internal photoelectric effect is observed when an electron transfers from the valence band to the conduction band

External Photo Effect

• The external photo effect is electron release from metal when exposed to light

Photons

• A photon is an elementary particle of light with wave properties

Subjective Sound Characteristic

• Volume is the subjective characteristic of sound

Tuning Fork Sound

• The sound of a tuning fork creates a simple tone

Listening to Organ Sounds

• A stethoscope can be used when listening to the sounds that occur in the organs during their functioning

Objective Sound Characteristic

• Frequency is the objective characteristic of sound

Measuring Hearing Acuity

• Audiometry is a method for measuring hearing acuity

Sound Propagation Speed

• Sound has the highest propagation speed in solids

Perception of Sound Loudness

• The perception of sound loudness is based on the Weber-Fechner law

Generator Sensor Characteristic

• The generator sensor characteristic depends on the magnitude of the output value on the input

Resistive Sensor

• A resistive sensor is a parametric sensor

Converting Biomedical Information

• A sensor converts biomedical information

Sensor Classes

• The two main classes of sensors are generator and parametric

Thermocouple Characteristic

• A thermocouple's characteristic is linear

Sensors and EMF

• Sensors in which EMF is directly generated under the influence of the input value don't need additional power sources and are generators

Electromagnetic Waves

• All radiation, from radio waves to X-rays, are electromagnetic waves that differ primarily in frequency

Stimulated Emission

• Stimulated emission is used to create optical quantum generators

Lowest Radiation Frequency

• Radio waves have the lowest frequency

Light Amplification

• The generation and amplification of light by stimulated emission is the basis of optical quantum generators

Radiation from Excited Atoms

• Radiation arising from the transition of atoms from an excited state to the ground state under the influence of external radiation (photon) is induced emission

Mirror Resonator in Optical Generator

• A mirror resonator in an optical quantum generator is designed to obtain a powerful and narrow beam of light

Excited Atoms and Light

• The emission of excited atoms under the action of light is termed induced emission

Tissue and Organ Impedance

• Tissue and organ impedance is the sum of active and capacitive resistances

Biological Tissue Impedance

• Biological tissue impedance decreases at high AC frequencies

Changes in Current Strength

• Changes in current strength in biological systems indicate polarization capability

Electrical Conductivity Dependence

• The dependence of the electrical conductivity of biological systems on the frequency of alternating current is variance

Stratum Corneum

• The stratum corneum of the epidermis acts as a dielectric

Impedance of Cerebral Vessels

• Registration of changes in the impedance of cerebral vessels in the process of cardiac activity is called rheoencephalography

Physical Factor in Inductothermy

• The physical factor acting on the body in inductothermy is a variable magnetic field

UHF Safety Element

• The therapeutic circuit is a UHF apparatus element that ensures patient safety

UHF Key Element

• A triode or transistor is a UHF apparatus element that functions as a key that opens and closes the circuit for current flow

Substances Conducting Electric Current

• Electrolytes are substances whose aqueous solutions conduct electricity

Stratum Corneum

• The stratum corneum of the epidermis acts as a dielectric

Treatment Method with Direct Current

• Galvanization is a treatment method that uses the action of a direct current of insignificant strength on the body

Direct Current and Tissue

• The primary effect of direct current on tissue is associated with the redistribution of electrolyte ions and other charged particles

Transformer Use in Galvanization

• A transformer in a galvanizing machine lowers the AC voltage from the mains

Simplest Electronic Amplifier

• The simplest electronic amplifier (EI) is a transistor

Converting DC Energy

• A generator converts DC energy into electromagnetic energy

Blood Serum Composition Determination

• When determining the protein composition of blood serum, their fractions, the particles of which have different values in the electric field mobility, are separated by electrophoresis

Electromagnetic Waves in Order of Wavelength

• Electromagnetic waves in order of decreasing wavelength: Radio waves, light, ultraviolet

Quantum Nature of Light

• Photo effect is a consequence of the quantum nature of light

Coherent Light Sources

• Coherent light sources emit waves that have the same length and constant phase difference

Minimum Frequency Beam

• Radio waves have the minimum frequency

Retina Image

• The image produced by the lens on the retina is real, reduced

Blood Flow Character

• Blood flow in the vascular system normally has laminar character

Vessel Narrowing Character

• With a sharp narrowing of the lumen of the vessels, the blood flow has turbulent character

Hemodynamics Basis

• Hydrodynamics is the physical basis of hemodynamics

Science of Deformation

• Rheology is the science that studies the deformation and fluidity of a substance

Measuring Viscosity

• Viscometry is a set of methods for measuring viscosity

Instruments for Viscosity

• Instruments used to measure viscosity are called viscometers

Spherical Body Resistance Law

• For a spherical body (ball), the dependence of the resistance force at its motion in a vessel with liquid is expressed by Stokes' Law

Fluid Layer Interactions

• The phenomenon in which separate layers of a real fluid during its flow act on each other with forces tangential to the layers is called internal friction or viscosity

Section of Physics

• Optics is a section of physics that deals with the laws of radiation, absorption and propagation of light

Light Guide Mechanism

• Mechanism of passage of light through a light guide is multiple internal reflection of light

Optical Microscope Carrier

• Light is the information carrier in an optical microscope

Electron Microscope Carrier

• Electrons are the information carrier in an electron microscope

Sensation of Different Colors

• Electromagnetic waves cause us to sense different colors due to their differing frequencies

Optical Anisotropy

• Use a polarizing microscope to study the structure of tissues that have optical anisotropy (muscle, bone, nerve)

Movement in Liquid Medium

• Electrophoresis is the phenomenon of movement in a liquid medium of suspended solid particles, gas bubbles, drops of another liquid, colloidal particles under the influence of an external electric field

Clinical Analysis Method

• Electrophoresis determines protein composition of blood serum, charge and mobility of ions

Ion Velocity

• The ion velocity doubles if the field strength doubles (at a given temp)

Electrophoresis Medium

• When performing electrophoresis, the medium must be electrically conductive

Electrolytic Dissociation

• Electrolytic dissociation is the disintegration of molecules from electrolyte to ions

Light Refraction

• When light passes through the interface between two media with different propagation speeds and its direction changes, the phenomenon is called refraction

Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Fluids whose viscosity rely on the velocity gradient are called Non-Newtonian fluids

Blood Viscosity

• Blood viscosity increases as temperature drops

Respiratory Minute Volume

• Respiratory minute volume in a person at rest is 6-8 L

Gas Transport

• Gas transport by blood, gas exchange between blood gases and tissue cells is internal respiration

Volumetric Blood Flow

• The law of volumetric blood flow velocity is the Haghen-Poiseuille law

Elasticity and Pulse Wave

• If the modulus of elasticity increases 9 times, the velocity of the pulse wave gets increased by 3 times

Speed of Light in Vacuum

• The speed of light in a vacuum is 300,000 km / s

Blood Flow Velocity

• The volumetric velocity of blood flow reduces 16 times if the vessel diameter reduces by 2 times

Heart Study Methods

• Ballistocardiography and Mechanocardiography allows studying heart function and elastic properties

Tidal Volume Meter

• A spirometer measures tidal volume

Gas Exchange in Alveoli

• Transportation of gases through airways, and gas exchange occur during external respiration

Tidal Volume Calculation

• Knowing all of the physical data of a person, it's possible to calculate his tidal volume

Blood Flow Velocity in Vessels

• In capillaries the blood flow velocity is almost zero

Negative Pressure Location

• Negative pressure can be found in the vena cava when entering the heart

Spirometry Studies

• Spirometry studies tidal volume

Blood Components and Rheology

• Erythrocytes (40-46% of blood volume) significantly affect rheological properties

Electron Microscope

• Electron wave properties influence the principle of operation of an electron microscope

Biomedical Information

• A sensor converts biomedical information

Matter Composition

• A Luminescent microscope gets used to study matter's composition by their glow

Eyes and Illumination

• Eye adaptation allows creating visual sensations on the retina under varying degrees of illumination

Sharp Image Formation

• Eye accommodation allows forming a sharp, identical image of objects at different distances on the retina

Particle with No Electrical Charge

• A photon has no charge

Blood Viscosity and Flow

• If blood viscosity increases by 2 times, the volumetric blood flow decreases by 2 times

Lowering AC Voltage

• A transformer lowers the AC voltage from the mains

Rectifiying Alternate Current

• Diodes rectify alternating current

Smoothing Rectified Current

• An electric filter smooths out the ripple of rectified current

Adjusting Current to Patient

• A potentiometer adjusts the current supplied to the patient

Vision Defect Correction

• Hyperopia requires collecting lenses to correct vision as objects form behind the retina

Tidal Volume Calculations

• Minute breath volume is tidal volume times frequency (per 1 minute)

Pulse Wave Speed

• Pulse wave speed is directly proportional to the modulus of elasticity and vessel thickness

Proton and Electron Charge

• Protons and electrons have an equal, but opposite, charge

Particles in Nuclei

• Neutrons are found in nuclei along with protons

Energy from Sun

• Energy is transferred from the Sun to the Earth via radiation

Einstein's Photoelectric Effect

• Einstein's equation for the photoelectric effect is based on the law of conservation of energy

Optically Active Substances

• Optically active substances rotate the plane of polarization of light

Mechanism of Passage of Light

• Multiple internal reflection of light facilitates the mechanism of light passage through a light guide

Polarimeter Components

• Medical polarimeters have a polarizer and analyzer

Scattered Light Intensity

• According to Rayleigh's law, the intensity of scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength of light

Measuring Rotation Angle

• A polarimeter measures the rotation angle of the plane of polarization of light

Polarimeter Phenomenon

• A polarimeter uses light polarization

Electromagnetic Oscillations

• Generators of electromagnetic oscillations and waves that operate in the range of ultrasonic, high, ultra-high, and ultra-high frequencies are built with high-frequency electronic devices

Physiotherapeutic Method

• Microwave therapy is a physiotherapeutic method based on using 2373 MHz electromagnetic waves

Physiotherapeutic Method with 460MHz

• Decimetric therapy is a physiotherapeutic method based on electromagnetic waves with a frequency of 460 MHz

Atom Energy Levels

• When moving from lower to higher energy levels, an atom absorbs energy

Crystal Property

• Some crystals exhibit dichroism, along with birefringence, to absorb light

Molecular Penetration

• Diffusion is when molecules of one substance penetrate anothers intermolecular space

Electrocardiograph Block Diagram

• In an electrocardiograph, a food block is not on the block diagnam

DC to EM Conversion

• Generators convert the energy of DC voltage sources into electromagnetic oscillations

Physiotherapeutic Apparatus

• Physiotherapeutic electronic apparatus of low and audio frequency is low frequency

Gradual Fading

• Reverb is the process of gradual fading of sound, after turning off the source, in enclosed spaces

Sound Intensity Scale

• Decibels distinguish from the sound intensity scale in the loudness scale

Direct Current Physiotherapy Method

• In this method, direct current with 60-80 V is used, it's called galvanization

Electroplating Machine

• A rectifier is used in an electroplating machine

Device for Therapy

• An Ohm generator is a UHF therapy device

Therapeutic Electrophoresis

• During therapeutic electrophoresis, a cathode attracts negative ions

Electron Mass

• An electron has the smallest mass

Biocontrolled Sensors

• A blood flow meter is a biocontrolled sensor

Respiratory Device

• A sensor, resistive measures the frequency and depth of respiration

Only Active Sensors

• Piezoelectric, photoelectric are active (generator) sensors

Parametric Sensors

• Capacitive, rheostatic are parametric (passive) sensors

Sensors and Active Resistance

• Load cells are the kinds of sensors in which the active resistance changes with mechanical deformation

Crystalline Dielectrics during Deformation

• Piezoelectric sensors use the principle of polarization of crystalline dielectrics during deformation

Semiconductor Thermocouple

• The Peltier effect occurs if a direct current is passed through the junction of a semiconductor thermocouple, then the junction heats up or cools down

Ultrasound Diagnostics Sensor

-A piezo sensor acts as an ultrasound emitter to give an image of organs

Information Retrieval

• Electrodes, not bio-controlled sensors-transducers are used when registering a rheogram

Ion Movement Counter

• A counter electric field as a result of the movement of ions in a faster electric field indicates polarization

Device for ECG Registration

• Electrodes help with data retrieval for ECG registration

Thermocouple Type

• A thermocouple refers to a generator-type transducer

Biopotential Errors

• Emergence of half cell potential and polarization of electrodes helps specify the reasons for errors when registering biopotentials with electrodes of different metals

Sensor Function

• A sensor transforms data

Connecting Circuits

• Electrodes are Specially shaped conductors for physhiological and electrical circuits

Active Signal Sensors

• Active (generator) sensors are activated when an electric current arises under an active signal

Exponential Law Conductor

• A Thermistor is a conductor that's electrical resistance changes according to the exponential law under temp

Sensors and Parameters

• Parametric is the type of sensor where parameters change due to the influence of the measured signal

Measured Signal Voltage

• A generator helps the sensor directly generate voltage or current

Types of Sensors

• Sensors can get divided into generator and parametric

Strain Gauge Use

• Strain gauges assess displacement or deformation

Sensitivity of Series Sensors

• Sensitivity of series sensors involves finding the product of each sensors sensitivity

Respiratory Sensors

• Induction is used for respiratory rate settings

Output Value Response

• Sensitivity shows the extent to which output value responds to measurement

Errors with Sensor

• Temperature is one issue to avoid while working with the sensor

Receptor Analogues

• Receptors analogues get described with sensors

Simple Medical Sensor

• Thermocouple helps as the simplest medical sensor

Temperature and Resistance

• Conductors see a linear increase in their resistance with temperature

Thermistor Referral

• Transducers of parametric type are referred to by this

Consistent Ultrasound Imaging

• Piezo sensors provide the ability to obtain an ultrasound image with constant contrast over the entire probing depth

Protein Composition of Blood

• Electrophoresis is performed when protein composition of blood needs to be identified

Electric Current in Vacuum

• Electric displacement current in a vacuum has magnetic action only

EM Field Conversion

• Dielectric losses is using electromagnetic fields to convert into thermal energy for a dielectric substance

Impedance Dependence

• • Electric current frequency affects the dependance of electrical resistance of dispersion

Maintaining Patient Safety

• A therapeutic circuit in the apparatus, like UHF, intends patient safely

High frequency effect

• Intensity of the is based on the distance from the fields source which can be seen in ultra-high-frequency fields

Pure Tone Source

• Tuning fork sets the source for pure tone

Ultra-High Frequency

• This therapy is associated with high frequency alternating electric field and affected patients directly

Electric Current and Touch

• Contact application of electrodes on the human body relates the relation between electric current and touch

Three Dimensional Images

• Interference helps create three dimensional images from objects

Solute Concentration

• Polarimeter helps determining the solute levels

Nerve Fiber Activity

• Local membrane depolarization occurs in any section of the unmyelinated nerve fiber

Environment Ratio

• Relative index of refraction equals ratio value of absolute indicators of environments

Measure of the Given medium

• The absolute refractive index measures how fast light travels in a given medium

Medium Density

• A medium has an higher refactive idex

Angle Measurements

• Perpendicular measures the angle of reflection

Biological lipids

• Hydrophobic and hydrophilic measure this

Microscopy for Measurement

• use of immersion media helps increase resolution

Visual elements

• Eye piece and lens set the optical system in miscroscopy

Visual aid

• The cornea and lens help provide retina

Near Sighted vision

• Elongated eyeball sets the standard

Distant objects and Visuals

• Distant objects are located behind the retina for visibility

Eye surface

• Retina helps set the the main task of the optical elements of obtaining images on a surface

Sahara water

• Solution Sahara helps with optically active substances include

Conversion

A device for converting various types of electrical energy into the energy of electrical (electromagnetic) oscillations-Generator

Layer insulation

• Insulation involves ultra high frequency for board-like metal parts

Body effects of alternanting current

• Diathermal set the method

Current of Electrothearphy

• Darsonualization sets the current

Muscle Issues

• Tissue for diagtheromoagulatioj is based on cautherization

Shape for cutting issues

• Diatherotomy helps set issues related with cutting, especially blades for cutting

Viscosity levels

• Vscosity is defined as vegetable oil viscosity

Membrame facts

• Singer and Nicholson helps with membrane issues

Complex Diffusial

• Simple diffusion measures molcules

Formed Complex

• Facilated Diffusion helps diffusion

Fats and Proteins

• Proteins are formed within lipids

Transport with Water

• Transport with water helps with moving between layers with membranes (semi)

Transporter on the cell

• Endocytosis helps cells, by transferring a substance into a cell

Cell Solutions

• Pinocytosis is known for solutions and movement

Iron transporters

• Valinomycin measures it's traits

Concentration Process

• Diffusion is the process of concentration

Substances Movement

• Passive helps with substance movements

Electrical activity

• electromyography measures bioelectrical activity

Channel Ability

• Selecevitiy helps with channel ability

The law

• Pika Law is a law

Formed Solution

• liposome measures that solution

Double Layer

• high transfer speeds is a double layered aspect

Ability traits

• Permeability helps move through

Lipic traits

• Phospholipids, glycolipids, steroids help with Lipids

Theories

• Bernstien is a method for theory on things

Cell Measurments

• Hodgin- Huxley is a method known as the 'cell'

Voltage source

Electrode, acts as an sensor when under the force of a voltage

Active state

Generated sensors help when voltage is applied

Resiatnce Changes

• The Thermistor is an area were the resistance changes exponentially

Exploration of fundamental optics laws, including Rayleigh's and Bouguer's Laws. Discusses the relationship between optical density and transmittance. Covers light absorption, nephelometry, polarized light, surfactants, wetting liquids, and the mechanical effects of ultrasound.