On Liberty: Chapter 2 - Liberty of Thought

On Liberty - Chapter 2. Of the Liberty of Thought Discussion

• Explores the importance of free thought and open discourse in society

The Necessity of Free Thought

• Freedom of thought and expression is crucial to safeguard against tyranny from governments or public opinion
• Even a government aligned with the people should not suppress dissenting views because it assumes infallibility

The Harm of Silencing Opinions

• Suppressing opinions harms the individual whose voice is silenced and society
• If an opinion is correct, silencing it robs humanity of truth
• If an opinion is incorrect, its confrontation with truth sharpens understanding and solidifies beliefs

Fallibility and Open Debate

• No individual or society can claim absolute certainty about their beliefs
• Open discussion is essential to test ideas, uncover errors, and validate truths
• The belief that some opinions are too dangerous to discuss assumes that current opinions are unquestionably correct, which history has repeatedly disproven

The Role of Controversy in Truth

• Truths lose their vitality if they are not actively debated
• Passively inherited beliefs become mere dogmas, disconnected from understanding or personal conviction
• To truly understand an idea, one must know the opposing arguments and be able to refute them
• Hearing only one side limits intellectual growth and weakens the defense of beliefs

Historical Examples of Suppression

• Historical figures like Socrates, Jesus, and others have been persecuted for their beliefs, showing that society's suppression of ideas often leads to regret and recognition of their value only in hindsight
• Silencing dissent today could lead to the loss of future truths that could benefit humanity

Social and Legal Intolerance

• While legal persecution of dissenters has decreased, social intolerance is equally oppressive
• Social stigma discourages individuals from openly expressing unpopular opinions, stifling innovation and intellectual diversity

Practical Benefits of Free Discussion

• Debate strengthens beliefs, ensuring they are held with conviction and clarity
• Without dissent, beliefs stagnate, leading to a lack of progress in thought and society
• Periods of intellectual flourishing, such as the Renaissance and Reformation, were driven by the questioning of authority and established norms

The Consequences of Passive Belief

• When beliefs are not questioned, their deeper meanings are lost, which reduces them to empty slogans or rituals, disconnected from practical application or emotional resonance
• Many Christians recite biblical teachings but do not practice them fully in their daily lives, showing a gap between belief and action
• Society must embrace free thought and discussion to protect individual rights and foster collective intellectual and moral growth
• Requires allowing all ideas, even controversial or unpopular ones, to be expressed and debated openly

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

• Outlines the fundamental human rights universally protected
• Serves as a guideline framework for international human rights law

Preamble

• Establishes the purpose and importance of the declaration
• Emphasizes inherent dignity and equal rights of humans as the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace
• Emphasizes atrocities caused by disregard for human rights, urging the protection of these rights to prevent tyranny and oppression
• The commitment of United Nations Member States is to promote respect for and observance of human rights universally

Key Articles

• All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights
• Endowed with reason and conscience and should treat each other with a spirit of brotherhood
• Everyone is entitled to the rights in the declaration without discrimination based on race, color, sex, language, religion, political opinions, or other statuses
• Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and personal security
• Slavery and the slave trade are prohibited in all forms
• No one shall be subjected to torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment

Civil and Political Rights

• Articles ensure individuals' participation in legal, political, and public life:
• Recognition Before the Law (Article 6): Everyone is a person under the law everywhere
• Equality Before the Law (Article 7): Equal protection against discrimination
• Right to a Fair Trial (Article 10): Guarantees impartial hearings for rights and criminal charges
• Presumption of Innocence (Article 11): No one is guilty until proven so in a fair trial
• Freedom of Movement (Article 13): Right to move and reside within and outside their country
• Right to Nationality (Article 15): Protection against arbitrary deprivation of nationality
• Freedom of Thought and Expression (Articles 18-19): Rights to religion, belief, and opinion

Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights

• Articles affirm the right to:
• Social Security and Adequate Living Standards (Article 25): Ensuring access to food, housing, and healthcare
• Education (Article 26): Compulsory and free elementary education
• Participation in Culture (Article 27): Engage in cultural life and benefit from scientific advancements

Collective and General Provisions

• Social and International Order (Article 28): Rights are fully realizable only in a just global system
• Community Duties (Article 29): Rights come with responsibilities to uphold public order and morality
• Prohibition of Destructive Interpretation (Article 30): No one can use the declaration to destroy others' rights
• This declaration serves as a global standard, aiming to ensure every individual's freedom, dignity, and equality while promoting global peace and cooperation

European Convention on Human Rights

• A foundational treaty created to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe
• Adopted by the Council of Europe in 1950 that came into force in 1953
• Aims to secure universal recognition and protection of human rights
• The convention has been supplemented and amended by protocols
• Protocols Nos. 11, 14, and 15, streamlined procedures and enhanced its effectiveness

Fundamental Rights and Freedoms

• States must secure the rights and freedoms outlined in the convention to everyone within their jurisdiction
• Everyone's right to life is protected by law, with exceptions for lawful acts such as defending oneself or during lawful arrests
• No one shall be subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment
• Slavery, servitude, and forced labor are prohibited, with exceptions for lawful detention, military service, or civic obligations
• Protects individuals from arbitrary arrest or detention
• States must follow lawful procedures for detaining individuals and ensure judicial review
• Guarantees a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time by an impartial tribunal
• Includes presumption of innocence and the right to legal representation
• Protects privacy, family, home, and correspondence
• Interference is only allowed in specific circumstances prescribed by law
• Includes the right to practice, teach, and observe religion, subject to limitations for public safety and rights of others
• Protects freedom of speech and information but allows restrictions for national security, public order, or protecting reputations
• Individuals have the right to peaceful assembly and to form or join associations, including trade unions
• The rights and freedoms in the convention must be secured without discrimination on any ground

The European Court of Human Rights

• The court interprets and enforces the ECHR, allowing individuals, organizations, or states to file complaints against alleged human rights violations
• The court has judges from all member states, who act in their individual capacities
• Complaints must meet criteria, such as exhausting all domestic remedies, before being heard

Protocols

• Expand on or add new rights, including:
• Protocol No. 1: Protects property rights, education rights, and the right to free elections
• Protocol No. 6 and 13: Concern the abolition of the death penalty
• Protocol No. 12: Provides a general prohibition against discrimination

State Obligations and Enforcement

• States must abide by the court's rulings, which are legally binding
• The Committee of Ministers supervises the implementation of judgments
• This convention is a cornerstone of human rights law in Europe, influencing national legislation and providing a legal mechanism for individuals to seek justice against rights violations

Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union

• A document outlines the fundamental rights and freedoms guaranteed to individuals within the EU

Preamble

• Emphasizes the shared values of human dignity, freedom, equality, and solidarity among the peoples of Europe
• Highlights the EU's commitment to democracy, rule of law, and respect for diverse cultures and traditions
• Aims to make fundamental rights more visible in light of societal changes, ensuring protection and promoting balanced, sustainable development

Chapter I - Dignity

• This chapter asserts the inviolability of human dignity and the right to life
• Prohibits the death penalty, torture, slavery, and forced labor, affirming the right to physical and mental integrity

Chapter II - Freedoms

• Includes the right to liberty, privacy, protection of personal data, freedom of thought, religion, expression, assembly, and the right to education and work
• Guarantees the right to asylum and protection against unjustified removal or extradition

Chapter III - Equality

• Equality before the law is central in this chapter
• Prohibits discrimination based on various grounds such as sex, race, religion, or sexual orientation
• Promotes equality between men and women, the rights of children and the elderly, and the integration of persons with disabilities

Chapter IV - Solidarity

• Covers workers' rights, such as fair working conditions, protection from unjustified dismissal, and access to social security
• Includes protections for family life, health care, environmental protection, and consumer rights

Chapter V - Citizens' Rights

• The focus is on political rights, including the right to vote and stand in elections, the right to good administration, access to documents, and the right to petition
• Covers freedom of movement and residence within the EU and diplomatic protection

Chapter VI - Justice

• Justice-related rights include the right to an effective remedy, a fair trial, presumption of innocence, and protection from being tried or punished twice for the same offense

Chapter VII - General Provisions

• Outlines the scope of the Charter, emphasizing that it applies to EU institutions and Member States when implementing EU law
• Ensures that any limitations on rights must respect their essence and only occur under conditions necessary to meet general interests recognized by the EU or to protect the rights of others
• Provides a comprehensive framework for protecting individual rights within the EU, integrating international standards and ensuring these rights are upheld across all Member States

A Multi-National Approach to Disinformation

• Disinformation is false, inaccurate, or misleading information designed, presented and promoted to intentionally cause public harm or for profit
• Disinformation is preferred over fake news to avoid misuse
• Digital media and social platforms amplify disinformation, multi-faceted issue
• Misinformation is misleading information shared unknowingly

Key Concerns and Challenges

• Disinformation campaigns targeting elections undermine democracy, using digital tools to spread false narratives
• Erosion of trust in journalism, political institutions, and science due to misleading content, amplified by social media algorithms
• Use of bots, fake accounts, and algorithmic manipulation to spread false information, incentivized by monetization

Need for Multi-Stakeholder Solutions

• Platforms, media, governments, civil society, and fact-checkers must collaborate
• Avoid single entity control over truth regulation to prevent censorship

Recommendations

• Online platforms need transparent news source information
• Mandatory disclosure for political and issue-based advertising
• Transparent algorithms and data for content ranking
• Promote media literacy by educating citizens and integrating into school curricula
• Ensure accessibility and support for fact-checking tools and initiatives
• Journalism should be provided with better tools and training to verify sources
• Digital media platforms should offer methods for reporting false information
• Protect independent journalism financially to counteract disinformation's economic incentives
• Encourage public service media and investigative journalism with funding
• Cross-border cooperation among newsrooms should be encouraged
• Ongoing research is needed due to evolving disinformation tactics

Short-Term and Long-Term Implementation Strategies

• Establish a self-regulatory Code of Practice for online platforms and media organizations in the short-term
• Encourage immediate transparency measures for digital advertising and news distribution in the short term
• Form a coalition of stakeholders to oversee initial progress in the short term.
• Assess the effectiveness of short-term measures and adjust strategies accordingly in the long-term
• Consider legal and policy interventions if self-regulation proves ineffective in the long term
• Ensure sustained funding and research efforts for combating disinformation in the long term

The governance of artificial intelligence

• Al has rapidly developed
• The report explores Al's governance, focusing on regulatory frameworks, ethical considerations, and societal impacts -The interim report presents initial findings, with a more comprehensive report to follow.
• Al is not new, but recent breakthroughs have accelerated development
• Foundation models serve as the backbone for many Al tools, allowing for fine-tuning across various applications
• Al shouldn't be viewed as autonomous or self-improving; it is a tool created and guided by human input
• Al enhances diagnostics and automates routine tasks, freeing up time for medical professionals
• Al accelerates drug development and personalized medicine by analyzing vast datasets
• Al helps teachers prepare lesson plans and personalize student learning
• Al raises academic integrity concerns, benefiting many applications

Twelve Challenges of Al Governance

• Existential Threat: Potential risks from Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)
• Bias & Fairness: Al can reinforce societal biases if not properly managed
• Privacy: Al's data reliance raises significant concerns about personal privacy
• Accountability: Determining responsibility for Al-driven decisions
• Transparency: Al's decision-making processes must be understandable
• Regulatory Adaptability: Governance must keep pace with Al's rapid development
• Employment: Al-driven automation could reshape labor markets
• International Coordination: Effective Al regulation requires global collaboration
• National Security: Al can be weaponized or misused
• Misinformation: Al-generated content poses risks for democracy and public trust
• Competition & Market Power: A few tech companies dominate Al development
• Al in Critical Infrastructure: Al's impact on vital services like energy and finance

The UK Government's Approach to Al

• The UK favors a "pro-innovation" approach, outlined in the Al White Paper (March 2023)
• Encompasses safety, security, robustness, transparency, explainability, fairness, accountability, governance, contestability and redress
• The Foundation Model Taskforce was created to address Al safety and development, with an initial £100 million investment

International Al Governance

• Al governance must be a global effort due to cross-border risks
• Comparison of governance models:
• UK: Context-specific, flexible approach
• EU: Risk-based Al Act
• US: Non-binding "Al Bill of Rights”

Conclusions

• Al governance is urgent but fragmented
• The UK has an opportunity to lead
• Regulation must be accelerated instead of delaying

SOCIAL MEDIA ALGORITHMS: WHY YOU SEE WHAT YOU SEE

• Social media platforms rely on algorithms to determine what users see in their feeds. Algorithm refers to step-by-step processes used to select and organize content.
• Social media companies' motives determine algorithm functionality
• Platforms like Facebook and Twitter function as businesses and derive revenue from advertising which depends on user engagement
• Increased engagement leads to higher ad impressions and profitability

Maximizing Engagement

• Social media companies keep users engaged to collect data to predict content
• This data collection extensive
• Data collected is analyzed via algorithms which is essential because manual analysis is impractical

Steps in Content Selection

• Data Collection: Gathering user interactions
• Content Prediction: Algorithms analyze user behavior
• Feed Population: Posts are prioritized based on engagement likelihood

Key Factors Affecting Content Ranking

-Frequency of engagement.

• Time spent on a post.
• Activity with specific users.
• Relevance of content.
• 90% of users passively engage
• As such, alogrithms track time spent on post, rather than interactions

Humans Still Matter

• Facebook hires people to evaluate feeds to reflect user interests User adjust feeds Algorithms may lack judgment/moral or ethics

  Case Study: Algorithmic Bias

• 2016: Facebook's Trending News accused biased views

• FB switched AI

  Example of Algorithmic Cruelty

• Algorithm lacks emotional intelligence

Social Media Accountability

• Fake news, bots, misinformation being combatted

• Regulated via Association and Computing Machinery's Code of ethics

• Algorithms still written by humans and therefor biased

• Conclusion: Powerful tools for curating content, however, there are ethical challanges

Freedom of Opinion and Expression

• Report is about practices for transparency and human rights relating public access infromaiton to HRC via international/regional law guidelines
• 49th session of human rights council presented laws
• UDHR/ICCPR rights -Restrictions on state infromation 1 - Legality 2 - Necesity 3 - Proportioanlity (can't withold unless sensetive) -Global Treaties
• Aarhus Convention
• Escazú Agreement -Regional Treaties:
• African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights
• American Convention on Human Rights
• Current Situation and Good Practices relating to legally guaranteeing access to government infromaiton

Rule of Maximum Disclosure

• musty record/organize to ensure easy pubic access

Proactive Publication

• do not wait for request

independent Oversight

• establsih what is being released out.

In Defence of the Enlightenment

• Todorov explains and explores secularism, its role, and the relationship between historical religious/political power
• Temporal vs spiritual power (state vs church)

Religious Control Over Politics: Theocracy

• Claims athoroity over both souls and bodies,
• Used the Donation of Constantine to fraulantly justify relgiious powers

Political Control Over Religion: Caesaropapism

• Combo of ceser (ruler) and pope
• Used to state control infromat

Rise of Individual Freedom & Role of Reformation

• Martin Luther, and otehrs argued ppl do mot need church but speak to god
• Led toa 3rd force for human rights

Separating Crimes from sins

: Beccaria; criminals actions should be addressed legally.

• 3 realm sof a modern democracy, personel, legal, public

Dangers of totalitanrism

• Condorcet pointed out a danger of political reiligons

20th century toalitarianisms

• Facsism / comm/ naz/ all contrilled by religion

Mdern Threats to Secularism

• Extreism and women, limits women freedom

• secularsim ensures freerooms of beleifs

• The NYT vs US (1971) Penatogn papers

• Major point- power to newspapers not publishing cllaifed infromat, used to ensure tyrany is supressed

Brand vs OH

• • landmark court case re-inteprreted the first admendment freedom

• Brandeburg TEST established

• The 90/69 case test set for a 2 part system

• To determine when speech advocating vioalnece can legally be ristricte.

In conclusion

• Controviersel is allowed.

VS denmark case:

• • Jens working for a danish radio in 1982 , inreviewing green jackets known for acist ideology
• Authorities did not jsut proseucate the jackest but charged the interveriers

conclusion

• Court said journalist should not be punsihe for hating if the intent ot inrom rather then inciten

Conclusion - Should not silevnt ehpress but shsoudn not be silenced if the intetn os to inform than hatred

MGMT Case:

• Involovled between daiuly mirrror and Naomi.
• Campbeli sued after DM published the articles
• Coiurt overturnd in favor of camp

Legal:

• Reafirm the right of what media has a right to speak.

In conclusion , the uk was adnmark case that infulencfed freedom law/me3ida in the Eu. GDPR

• Data porotection regt to prevent data to prevent it for citizens
• Eropea / interanaitonl
• Buidls to chares from what perosnl datat,

GDPR main principes Purpose Limination: to get permission Storage Limlation: Inergruity COnfidenytitily: business to potec datat Accontabilyt; : organizaitns to prve all accpeting thr rules

Vaid Lega:

• Businuess to follow -Legal:
• Get concnet
• Obigation
• Legitamit All comapineis cant use box, they ask Enforces a strict system of accoutnbality