Old English: Roman Invasion to Earliest Manuscripts

Goths destroyed Rome, and remaining Romans withdrew from Britain.

They brought their language with them.

King Alfred the Great

Norman French became the ruling class language, and approximately 10,000 French words entered the English language.

The London dialect

It is a tool, adapted as required by its users.

William Caxton introduced the first printing press into England.

Samuel Johnson published his Dictionary of the English Language, which recorded language as it was used at that time.

The Great Vowel Shift was a change in pronunciation that took place towards the end of Middle English and continued for approximately 200 years.

The pronunciation of vowels, particularly long vowels, changed.

The movement of people to the south-east of England and a desire to sound different from the ruling classes.

They introduced many new words and idioms into the English language and helped establish the prestige of the English language.

He introduced over 1700 words and linguistic variations, such as changing nouns into verbs.

The lexis has expanded in response to industrial and social developments as well as colonialism.

New words were invented or adapted from other languages such as Italian and French to describe new ideas and practices.

It helped to standardize spelling, punctuation, and the system of writing, making the printed word more widely available.

Present Day English (PDE)

New words for things that had not existed previously

Many different areas, including fashion, food, leisure, medicine, and chemistry

Functional Theory

Descriptivist

Cultural learning

When individuals and groups perceive a benefit in a change

The change in language used on the internet

One-way, from the pre-existing generation of society to the emerging

It highlights the effectiveness of language learning in environments where understandings of the language are the same

It does not cover all methods of learning, such as trial and error, and cannot account for the variety of language that may be formed from it.

Languages change as a result of the uneven use of spoken language, with people favouring one way of pronouncing words over others.

Language change occurs due to the influence of one variety of language on another through contact.

In the Substratum Theory, the language does not simply gain new lexis, but changes its existing forms.

New words can be created through the combination of existing sounds and letters, filling gaps in the language.

The Wave Model focuses on the geographical and social spread of language features, while the Tree Model focuses on the linguistic relationships between languages.

Latin is the proto-language for the Romance languages, including French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Romanian.

It highlights the importance of language contact and globalisation in shaping language change.

It is regarded as too general for close analysis, as it presumes that everyone is trying to speak in the same way.

It provides evidence for the Substratum Theory, showing how language change occurs through language contact and globalisation.

Proto-Germanic

The Tree Model assumes languages change by splitting from a common core, while the Wave Model proposes that languages evolve from one disturbance or change, spreading outward.

The S-curve Model proposes that language changes begin slowly, accelerate as more speakers adopt them, and eventually level off, with the rate of adoption following an S-shaped curve.

The debate is whether language change stems from the creation of new forms ('progress') or the decline of old forms ('decay').

Deutscher's book explores how language change arises from a combination of the human mind's craving for order and the need to find regularity, as well as the instinct to be expressive and innovative.

Language change has sped up dramatically with the advent of the internet and mass media.

The prescriptive approach sees a 'gold standard' of English that should be preserved, while the descriptive approach sees English as evolving to accommodate the needs of its users.

It is not explicitly mentioned in the text, but the Substratum Theory suggests that a language's grammar and vocabulary are influenced by the grammar and vocabulary of the languages spoken by the people who adopted it.

The Tree Model assumes that languages change by splitting from a common core, similar to a family tree.

Pidgin and creole languages are examples of languages that mix and blend, rather than splitting from a common core, which challenges the Tree Model's assumption of language development.

The primary focus of Bernstein's theory is to link language with educational achievement, suggesting that individuals who use a more in-depth language are more likely to succeed academically.

Elaborated code is characterized by accurate and varied grammatical order, complex sentences, and unusual and varied lexis, whereas restricted code is marked by simple and short sentences, limited lexis, and hesitancy.

The stages of language development occur at roughly the same times in children, children's language development follows a similar pattern across cultures, and deaf children who have not been exposed to a spoken language may make up their own language.

Bernstein's theory suggests that children who are not exposed to both restricted and elaborated codes may be at a disadvantage in educational settings, particularly in language-based subjects.

Co-evolution refers to the idea that languages and their varieties evolve as their speakers do, and that language must change to remain effective for its users.

From birth to puberty is considered a sensitive time for acquisition of a native language.

The LAD is an innate module of the mind that provides an innate capacity for language acquisition.

The seven functions of language are instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and four others, and they are essential for children to acquire language skills in their early years.

Halliday's Functional Theory suggests that language evolves to meet the needs of its users, which is closely tied to the concept of co-evolution, and implies that language is constantly changing to remain effective.

The LAD itself was not enough for Jim to learn to speak, suggesting that the LAD is not sufficient to explain language development.

The study of Genie supports the idea of a critical period for native language acquisition.

Bernstein's theory remains relevant in contemporary education, highlighting the importance of exposure to both restricted and elaborated codes to support academic achievement.

Ritchie argues that there is no innate programming for language acquisition and that children learn language through experience.

The concept of co-evolution suggests that language varieties and dialects evolve as their speakers do, and that language must change to remain effective for its users.

Bernstein's theory suggests that language is a critical factor in educational achievement, and that exposure to both restricted and elaborated codes is essential for academic success.

The subject-verb form of grammar is common to all languages and children seem to be aware of this structure even when they make up their own languages.

Halliday's Functional Theory suggests that language evolves to meet the needs of its users, and that language acquisition is a critical process in shaping human society and relationships.

Children learn language just as they learn all their other skills, by experience.

The studies of feral children, such as Jim and Genie, provide insights into the limitations of the theory of the LAD.

During the sensitive period, language learning might be more successful.

To express personal opinions, feelings, and identity of the speaker

The behaviourist theory suggests that language is acquired through conditioning and imitation, while the innate language competence theory suggests that humans have an innate ability to learn language

To explore the world and to learn and discover

Children correct their own language to a standard form even when adults do not correct them

The environment plays a strong influence in shaping the language that children acquire

It suggests that humans have an innate ability to learn language, and children are born with an instinct for a universal grammar

It generated early ideas about the process of language development from which other theorists developed further ideas

To exchange, relay, or request information

Through questions and answers, or running commentary that frequently accompanies children's play

It allows children to explore their imagination and create imaginary worlds through language

Lack of interaction with environment, assumption of innate language development, no evidence of language device in the brain, no active role of child in language acquisition, and neglect of child's social world.

These studies showed that language does not develop automatically in the absence of language stimulation, contradicting the idea of innate language development.

LAD assumes innate language development with no role for the child, whereas LASS emphasizes the importance of social interaction, active learning, and environmental stimulation in language acquisition.

LASS suggests that children are active learners who engage with their environment and social world to acquire language, contradicting the LAD's assumption of passive language development.

LASS implies that language acquisition is deeply rooted in the child's social world, and that social interaction plays a crucial role in shaping language development.