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Questions and Answers
What is the role of the three stop codons in gene expression?
What is the role of the three stop codons in gene expression?
What defines the process of gene expression?
What defines the process of gene expression?
Which of the following statements about constitutive genes is true?
Which of the following statements about constitutive genes is true?
What is the primary function of regulated genes?
What is the primary function of regulated genes?
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In prokaryotes, what is the predominant effect of most regulatory proteins?
In prokaryotes, what is the predominant effect of most regulatory proteins?
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What is the central dogma of molecular biology?
What is the central dogma of molecular biology?
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What is an operon in the context of gene expression?
What is an operon in the context of gene expression?
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How can the expression of a gene that encodes a protein be inferred?
How can the expression of a gene that encodes a protein be inferred?
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What defines heredity?
What defines heredity?
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How does sexual reproduction affect genetic variation?
How does sexual reproduction affect genetic variation?
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What primarily determines the differences between various cell types in eukaryotes?
What primarily determines the differences between various cell types in eukaryotes?
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What happens during transcription in protein synthesis?
What happens during transcription in protein synthesis?
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What role do codons play in protein synthesis?
What role do codons play in protein synthesis?
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What is one effect of DNA methylation as we age?
What is one effect of DNA methylation as we age?
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How do cancer cells differ from normal cells in terms of gene expression?
How do cancer cells differ from normal cells in terms of gene expression?
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Which of the following best describes a syndrome?
Which of the following best describes a syndrome?
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Which statement accurately reflects alleles?
Which statement accurately reflects alleles?
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What is the primary focus of the research on the epigenetic clock?
What is the primary focus of the research on the epigenetic clock?
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What characteristic does DNA methylation have with respect to the genetic sequence?
What characteristic does DNA methylation have with respect to the genetic sequence?
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What is the function of mRNA after transcription?
What is the function of mRNA after transcription?
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What might result when a mutation affects a gene?
What might result when a mutation affects a gene?
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What does the term 'epigenetic' refer to in the context of aging and DNA?
What does the term 'epigenetic' refer to in the context of aging and DNA?
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Which mechanism primarily reflects an individual's age according to recent studies?
Which mechanism primarily reflects an individual's age according to recent studies?
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What is the average life expectancy mentioned for individuals in Asia?
What is the average life expectancy mentioned for individuals in Asia?
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What was a major finding related to COVID-19 in the study?
What was a major finding related to COVID-19 in the study?
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What is a primary goal of creating a Human Cell Atlas?
What is a primary goal of creating a Human Cell Atlas?
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How many participants were involved in the COVID-19 immune response study?
How many participants were involved in the COVID-19 immune response study?
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What was the method used to compile the Cacao Gene Atlas?
What was the method used to compile the Cacao Gene Atlas?
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What significance does the Cacao Gene Atlas hold for plant breeders?
What significance does the Cacao Gene Atlas hold for plant breeders?
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What was notable about the study's approach to measuring gene expression?
What was notable about the study's approach to measuring gene expression?
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Which stage of research is involved in simulating how gene modification influences the cacao plant?
Which stage of research is involved in simulating how gene modification influences the cacao plant?
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What aspect of T cell receptors was examined in the COVID-19 study?
What aspect of T cell receptors was examined in the COVID-19 study?
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What is the purpose of compiling a Cacao gene atlas?
What is the purpose of compiling a Cacao gene atlas?
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How long ago was cacao first introduced to the Philippines?
How long ago was cacao first introduced to the Philippines?
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What is one of the main goals of the genetic manipulation discussed in the research?
What is one of the main goals of the genetic manipulation discussed in the research?
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What historical trade route facilitated the introduction of cacao to the Philippines?
What historical trade route facilitated the introduction of cacao to the Philippines?
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What is the potential benefit of widening the resources in gene expression for cacao?
What is the potential benefit of widening the resources in gene expression for cacao?
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What aspect of the gene regulatory networks was highlighted in the research findings?
What aspect of the gene regulatory networks was highlighted in the research findings?
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Which country was the first in Asia to introduce cacao?
Which country was the first in Asia to introduce cacao?
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What is a key focus of the study involving plant transcription factors?
What is a key focus of the study involving plant transcription factors?
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What type of disorder is Klinefelter syndrome categorized as?
What type of disorder is Klinefelter syndrome categorized as?
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Which condition is characterized by the absence or underdevelopment of one X chromosome in females?
Which condition is characterized by the absence or underdevelopment of one X chromosome in females?
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What is a common characteristic of spina bifida?
What is a common characteristic of spina bifida?
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What type of disorders include conditions such as late-onset Alzheimer's disease and coronary artery disease?
What type of disorders include conditions such as late-onset Alzheimer's disease and coronary artery disease?
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Which of the following is NOT classified as a single-gene disorder?
Which of the following is NOT classified as a single-gene disorder?
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Which disorder is specifically linked to a vitamin deficiency during pregnancy?
Which disorder is specifically linked to a vitamin deficiency during pregnancy?
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Duchenne muscular dystrophy primarily affects which of the following?
Duchenne muscular dystrophy primarily affects which of the following?
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What is a primary characteristic of late-onset Alzheimer's disease?
What is a primary characteristic of late-onset Alzheimer's disease?
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Study Notes
Unit V: Nucleic Acids
- The unit focuses on nucleic acids, specifically DNA and RNA.
Lesson Objectives
- Describe the molecular structure of DNA and RNA, including their components.
- Explain the processes of replication, transcription, and translation, and how genetic information is transferred from DNA to RNA to protein.
- Demonstrate understanding of how nucleic acids regulate gene expression, including the role of promoters, enhancers, and transcription factors.
- Explain the potential impact on protein function and organismal traits.
Differentiate a Gene from DNA
- A gene is a segment of DNA.
- DNA carries the genetic instructions (hereditary material).
- Genes can be replicated or copied.
- Genes are like a series of letters strung together (with proteins).
- Genes are like an instruction book.
What is a Chromosome?
- Chromosomes are long strands of DNA.
- Humans have 46 chromosomes.
- Paired chromosomes (autosomes) are numbered 1 to 22 based on size.
- The remaining two chromosomes are the sex chromosomes (X and Y).
Genetics: Gregor Mendel
- Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk considered the "Father of Genetics";
- He was born in the Czech Republic.
- He studied genes and heredity using pea plants (Pisum sativum).
- Pea plants have many varieties that produce faster.
- He worked out the basic laws of inheritance through experiments with pea plants.
Traits of Pea Plants
- Seed form (round or wrinkled)
- Seed color (yellow or green)
- Flower color (white or violet)
- Pod form (full or constricted)
- Pod color (green or yellow)
- Stem size (tall or short)
Differentiate a Nucleic Acid from a Nucleotide
- A nucleotide is a building block of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
- Nucleotides have a five-carbon sugar backbone, a phosphate group, and nitrogen bases.
What is a Nucleotide?
- A nucleotide is made of three main parts: a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
- DNA and RNA are polymers made of nucleotides.
What is a Nucleoside?
- A nucleoside is a structural subunit of nucleic acids.
- It can be a pyrimidine or purine.
- Nucleic acids contain nucleosides.
Heredity
- Heredity is the transmission of traits from one generation to the next.
- Genetic heritage is passed down from parents.
- Traits are determined by genes.
- A single gene can have variants (alleles).
How does Heredity Work?
- Genes encode instructions for making proteins.
- Genetic information is transferred to offspring.
- In sexual reproduction, each cell contains two variants of each chromosome, one from each parent.
- Variations arise from new combinations of chromosomes in offspring.
- Mutations can also cause variations.
- Mutations might be harmful, neutral, or beneficial to an individual.
When Mutation Affects a Gene
- When a mutation affects a gene, there may be a genetic disorder.
- These terms describe the effects:
- Disease: A unique process in the body with specific causes and symptoms.
- Disorder: A disruption to normal functions.
- Syndrome: A set of symptoms that appear together, characterizing a specific disease.
Relationship of Proteins and Nucleic Acids
- Nucleic acids (DNA) encode the information necessary to build proteins.
- The central dogma of molecular biology explains the flow of information from DNA to RNA to protein.
Protein Synthesis (Transcription and Translation)
- Protein synthesis is the process where a sequence of DNA is used to build a protein from individual amino acids.
- Transcription is the start of the process where a coding region of DNA is converted to messenger RNA (mRNA). mRNA carries instructions from the DNA sequence out of the nucleus and to ribosomes in cells' cytoplasm.
- During transcription, mRNA is made from the DNA sequence following base pairing rules where uracil replaces thymine.
- The ribosome reads the mRNA three bases (codons) at a time.
- Each codon specifies an amino acid. These amino acids join to form a protein, a process called translation.
Codon Wheel
- Codons are used to signal the beginning of protein synthesis (START codon).
- There are three codons that signal the end of protein synthesis (STOP codons).
Codon Chart
- The codon chart shows the correspondence between codons that carry the genetic code and the amino acids specified by the codons.
Gene Expression
- Gene expression is the process where information from a gene is used to build a functional product, often a protein.
- Gene expression happens through the transcription of RNA molecules.
- These RNA molecules can either code for proteins or have other functions.
- A gene that encodes a polypeptide is expressed in two steps using the central dogma of molecular biology.
- Gene expression can be studied 'classically' through observing the phenotype, a physical characteristic determined by the protein's function.
- Recent technology has advanced to enable the ability to measure mRNA expression across the entire genome.
- Constitutive genes encode proteins involved in basic metabolic processes and maintain stability.
- Regulatory genes can turn 'on' or 'off' and are influenced by factors like environmental conditions.
- In prokaryotes, regulatory proteins usually turn genes off and may require ligands attached for binding to a particular gene.
- In eukaryotes cell-cell differences are determined by expressiong of different genes.
- An example of gene differences showing 'classic' phenotypes is from an undifferentiated fertilized egg showing phenotypic differences from other cells like: skin, neuron, and muscle.
Epigenetic Clock Marks Age of Human Tissues and Cells
- Recent research has shown DNA changes can predict longevity.
- Epigenetic age better represents a biological age compared to chronological age.
Research Gap
- For years, scientists tried to measure aging by studying changes inside the cells, particularly DNA methylation.
- This area is important in the aging process and may also help determine potential therapeutic targets.
Research Problem
- Research examined the relationship between DNA methylation and aging.
Methodology
- Scientists developed an age predictor based on 353 specific DNA sites where methyl groups increased or decreased with age.
- Scientists analyzed nearly 6,000 samples from 20 different cancers.
Results
- Computed biological age in numerous tissues and cells was within a few years of chronological age, not in skeletal muscle, heat tissue, and breast tissue.
- Cancer greatly affected DNA methylation age.
Limitations of the Study
- The study used Arabidopsis as the model.
- The study approach was computational.
How Can We Obtain Nucleic Acids?
- Seeds, grains, fish eggs, muscle tissue, meat, and yeast are good sources of nucleic acids like DNA and nucleotides like ATP.
Genetic Disorders
- Genetic disorders occur when a mutation (a harmful change in a gene or the wrong amount of genetic material) affects your genes.
- Genes are made of DNA containing instructions and characteristics that make you unique.
- Types of genetic disorders:
- Chromosomal disorders (affecting chromosome structure): Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, triple X syndrome, and others.
- Complex disorders (multifactorial): Late onset Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, autism, etc.
- Single-gene disorders (monogenic): Cystic fibrosis, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, etc.
Klinefelter Syndrome
- A common male condition that results when a person has an extra X sex chromosome (XXY, XXXY, XXXXY).
- Typical characteristics include small firm testicles, small penis size, low sperm count.
Turner Syndrome
- A condition that affects females, resulting from one missing or partially missing X sex chromosome.
- Typical characteristics include short stature, underdeveloped ovaries, and possible heart defects.
Spina Bifida
- A condition where the spine and spinal cord don't form properly during fetal development.
- Three types: occulta, meningomyelocele, and myelomeningocele.
- Occulta is mild and hidden.
- Myelomeningocele and meningomyelocele are more serious.
- May also involve loss of movement in the legs, and bladder and bowel dysfunction.
- Often more common among Hispanic and White populations due to insufficient folate in the pregnant person's body.
Late-onset Alzheimer's Disease
- Common form of dementia.
- Onset is generally at age 65.
- Characterized by memory and cognition issues and impaired judgment, although rare onset may happen as early as 30.
Cystic Fibrosis
- Inherited disorder causing severe damage to lungs, digestive system, and organs.
- Affects cells producing mucus, sweat, and digestive juices;
- The condition leads to thickened mucus in the lungs and other affected organs or systems and causing health problems.
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
- A condition causing skeletal and heart muscle weakness that gets worse over time.
- Typically onset is before age six causing progressive muscle weakness and atrophy.
- Common symptoms include toe-walking, calf muscle hypertrophy, fatigue, difficulty climbing up stairs, frequent falls, breathing problems, learning differences, delayed speech, and short stature.
Trends and Issues in the Study of Nucleic Acids
- One trend is the development of a Japanese diet that may slow cancer cell growth.
- A specific example are compounds in Japanese foods (such as nucleic acids from salmon and torula yeast) that impact cell growth and potential cancer prevention.
- Another trend is gene therapy, which is a new treatment being developed for genetic defects and involves human and animal trials to treat issues such as cystic fibrosis.
- CRISPR technology is a tool that is also used in gene therapy that aims to change unhealthy proteins produced due to disease-causing genes.
CRISPR
- CRISPR is an immune system used by microbes to find and eliminate unwanted invaders (e.g., viruses).
- CRISPRs are sequences of DNA that appear in microbes and identify "genetic patterns".
- CRISPR is used to understand an organism’s immune system and help scientists in gene editing, etc.
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