Nutrition: Carbohydrates Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is a major function of water in the body?

  • Hormone synthesis
  • Temperature regulation (correct)
  • Energy production
  • Protein building

    • Which process involves the conversion of ADP to ATP for energy storage?

  • Fermentation
  • Oxidation
  • Phosphorylation (correct)
  • Hydrolysis

    • What type of nucleic acid serves as the genetic material in all organisms?

  • RNA
  • Proteins
  • ATP
  • DNA (correct)

    • What role does water play in the digestive process?

    <p>It moistens food for easier swallowing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four primary food substances essential for human life?

    <p>Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following classes of carbohydrates is the simplest form?

    <p>Monosaccharides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which carbohydrate is commonly known as table sugar?

    <p>Sucrose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major food reserve carbohydrate in plants?

    <p>Starch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of cellulose?

    <p>Indigestible by humans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disaccharide consists of two glucose molecules?

    <p>Maltose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which carbohydrate serves as a major carbohydrate stored in animals?

    <p>Glycogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which carbohydrate is known for being the sweetest simple sugar?

    <p>Fructose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the functions of calcium in the body?

    <p>It helps in blood clotting and muscle contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mineral is a constituent of nucleic acids and ATP?

    <p>Phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cell membrane?

    <p>Controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organelle is known as the powerhouse of the cell?

    <p>Mitochondrion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion helps maintain the balance between anions and cations in the body?

    <p>Chlorine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main component of the cytoplasm?

    <p>Jellylike fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mineral is essential for the production of thyroxine?

    <p>Iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of mitochondria allows them to release energy effectively?

    <p>Double membrane structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)?

    <p>Assist protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the cell is responsible for controlling materials in and out of the cell?

    <p>Plasma membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) does not have ribosomes attached?

    <p>Smooth ER</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organelle is primarily responsible for synthesizing carbohydrates and packaging molecules for secretion?

    <p>Golgi Complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these levels is NOT part of cellular organization?

    <p>Organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)?

    <p>Metabolize carbohydrates and lipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is responsible for producing ribosomal RNA?

    <p>Nucleolus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'cell differentiation' refer to?

    <p>Cell develops into different cell types</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of muscle tissue?

    <p>Contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of muscle tissue is found in the heart?

    <p>Cardiac muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of epithelial tissue?

    <p>Allows constant loss and renewal of cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of epithelium is found in the lining of the digestive tract?

    <p>Columnar epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main component of connective tissue?

    <p>Extracellular matrix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which tissue type consists of neurons and supporting cells?

    <p>Nervous tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of muscle tissue?

    <p>Neural muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes connective tissue proper?

    <p>Contains a matrix of collagen and tissue fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one role of water as a transporter in the human body?

    <p>It carries nutrients from foods to tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What property of water contributes to its ability to regulate body temperature?

    <p>High heat capacity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of water in metabolic reactions?

    <p>To dilute waste substances.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes ATP?

    <p>It acts as a source of energy for the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes involves the transformation from DNA to protein?

    <p>Translation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which carbohydrate is primarily indigestible by humans?

    <p>Cellulose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What class of carbohydrates includes simple sugars?

    <p>Monosaccharides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following carbohydrates is commonly found in fruit and honey?

    <p>Fructose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major end-product of carbohydrate digestion?

    <p>Glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disaccharide is formed from glucose and fructose?

    <p>Sucrose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major carbohydrate stored in animals?

    <p>Glycogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which carbohydrate serves as the major food reserve in plants?

    <p>Starch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which class of carbohydrates includes multiple sugar units?

    <p>Polysaccharides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)?

    <p>Synthesize proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of molecule does the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) primarily help synthesize?

    <p>Lipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum from Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum?

    <p>Presence of ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organelle is involved in synthesizing carbohydrates and packaging them for secretion?

    <p>Golgi Complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of ribosomes within the cell?

    <p>Synthesize proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cell differentiation refers to which of the following processes?

    <p>The development of different cell types</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component controls materials in and out of the nucleus?

    <p>Nuclear membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a level of cellular organization?

    <p>Ecosystems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the primary roles of calcium in the human body?

    <p>Involvement in blood clotting and muscle contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chlorine in the body primarily helps to maintain what?

    <p>Anion and cation balance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the nucleus in a cell?

    <p>Direct the cell’s activities and contain DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of mitochondria that aids in energy release?

    <p>Being rod-shaped and having deeply folded inner membranes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mineral plays a significant role in improving resistance to tooth decay?

    <p>Fluorine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary composition of the cell membrane?

    <p>Two layers of phospholipid molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the overall function of cytoplasm in a cell?

    <p>Serve as a matrix for chemical reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mineral is essential for the production of thyroxine?

    <p>Iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are lipids primarily made of?

    <p>Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes triglycerides?

    <p>Made up of 3 fatty acid molecules and 1 glycerol molecule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is NOT a function of lipids?

    <p>Conversion of oxygen into glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is crucial for the structural function of lipids in cells?

    <p>Phospholipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during denaturation of a protein?

    <p>The three-dimensional structure is lost</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT known to cause protein denaturation?

    <p>Incorporation of additional amino acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a polypeptide?

    <p>It consists of amino acids joined together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following elements is typically present in proteins but not in lipids?

    <p>Nitrogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of receptors in cells?

    <p>They bind chemical messengers to convey signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the function of lipid-soluble messengers in signal transduction pathways?

    <p>They directly alter gene transcription by acting as transcription factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of biochemical pathways, what is cAMP involved in?

    <p>It acts as a secondary messenger in lipid-insoluble messenger pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of all receptors mentioned?

    <p>They specifically bind to chemical messengers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecules serve as chemical messengers in signal transduction?

    <p>Lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which monosaccharide is predominantly broken down during respiration to release energy?

    <p>Glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic differentiates starch from cellulose as polysaccharides?

    <p>Starch is solely made of glucose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements correctly describes maltose?

    <p>It is a byproduct of starch digestion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following carbohydrates is incorrectly matched with its classification?

    <p>Sucrose - Polysaccharide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disaccharide is known for its presence in both fruit and honey?

    <p>Sucrose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of glycogen?

    <p>It is made solely from galactose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which carbohydrate is classified as an indigestible polysaccharide for humans?

    <p>Cellulose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that defines monosaccharides?

    <p>They are the simplest form of carbohydrates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What unique structure defines triglycerides as a specific type of lipid?

    <p>Three fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function of lipids relates to their role in protecting internal organs?

    <p>Shock absorbance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process describes the alteration of a protein's three-dimensional structure without changing its amino acid sequence?

    <p>Denaturation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is least likely to cause protein denaturation?

    <p>Cooling temperatures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of lipid is primarily responsible for forming cell membranes?

    <p>Phospholipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects the relationship between proteins and amino acids?

    <p>Proteins consist of one or more polypeptides made from amino acids.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In mammals, what is the purpose of the oil secreted by sebaceous glands?

    <p>Protect the skin with a waterproof layer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the elemental constituents of proteins aside from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen?

    <p>Nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does calcium play in the human body?

    <p>It serves as an important mineral for muscle contraction and blood clotting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the structure of the cell membrane?

    <p>It consists of a bilayer of phospholipid molecules with proteins interspersed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the nucleus in a cell?

    <p>It directs the cell's activities and holds the DNA for protein synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following minerals is essential for proper thyroid function?

    <p>Iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of mitochondria in the cell?

    <p>They release energy from food molecules and transform it into ATP.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mineral is critical for improving the resistance to tooth decay?

    <p>Fluorine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion aids in maintaining the balance between anions and cations in the body?

    <p>Chlorine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cytoplasm in a cell?

    <p>It serves as a matrix for chemical reactions to occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the endoplasmic reticulum?

    <p>Assist in protein synthesis and metabolize nonpolar compounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)?

    <p>Ribosomes attached assist in protein synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is attributed to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?

    <p>Metabolizing carbohydrates, lipids, and other non-protein materials</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure does the nucleus primarily control?

    <p>Material exchange in and out of the nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes cell differentiation?

    <p>The event where cells develop into different types</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which levels are included in the organization of the human body?

    <p>Organ level, cellular level, and organismal level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the Golgi complex play in cellular function?

    <p>Synthesizes carbohydrates and packages molecules for secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In cellular organization, which of the following represents the correct sequence from simplest to most complex?

    <p>Atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Introduction

    • Four primary food substances are essential to maintain human life: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and water.

    Carbohydrates

    • Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
    • Found in rice, bread, fruit, and other food sources.
    • Three classes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

    Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars)

    • Glucose: Sweetest simple sugar, broken down during respiration to release energy.
    • Fructose: Commonly found in fruit and honey.
    • Galactose: Intermediate in the digestion of starch.

    Disaccharides (Double Sugars)

    • Maltose: Composed of glucose + glucose, commonly known as malt sugar.
    • Sucrose: Composed of glucose + fructose, commonly known as table sugar.

    Polysaccharides

    • Starch: Major food reserve in plants, composed of glucose.
    • Glycogen: Major carbohydrate stored in animals, composed of glucose.
    • Cellulose: Makes up the cell wall of plants, composed of glucose, indigestible by humans.

    Water

    • Makes up 75% of the human body.
    • A vital substance for the body.

    Functions of Water

    • Good solvent:
      • Medium for metabolic reactions.
      • Dilutes waste substances to prevent them from harming the body.
    • Temperature regulator:
      • Water has a high heat capacity, helping to maintain body temperature.
    • Strong surface tension:
      • Strong attraction between water molecules.
      • Allows water to rise readily by capillary action.
    • Transporter: Water in the blood carries nutrients from food to tissues throughout the body.
    • Lubricant:
      • Synovial fluid lubricates joints for easy movement.
      • Water moistens food during digestion, aiding in swallowing and waste elimination.

    ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

    • The primary source of energy for biological activities of the cell.
    • ATP ⇔ ADP + Pi + energy.
    • ADP (adenosine diphosphate) functions as an energy storage mechanism.

    Nucleic Acids

    • Two types: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
    • DNA acts as the genetic material of all organisms.
    • The relationship between DNA, RNA, and protein is described by the Central Dogma:
      • Transcription: DNA is transcribed into RNA.
      • Translation: RNA is translated into protein.

    Mineral Salts and Ions

    • Mineral salts and ions contribute to various essential functions.

    Examples:

    • Calcium: Constituent of bones and teeth, involved in blood clotting, and muscle contraction.
    • Chlorine: Maintains the balance between anion and cation.
    • Phosphate: Constituent of nucleic acids, ATP, bones, and teeth.
    • Fluorine: Important for improving tooth decay resistance.
    • Iodine: Component of growth hormone and thyroxine.
    • Iron: Constituent of many enzymes, haemoglobin, and myoglobin.

    Cells & Tissues

    • The basic unit of life is the cell.

    Generalized Human Cell & Organelles

    • Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane: Covers the surface of cells, encloses cytoplasm. Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Functions in controlling the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
    • Cytoplasm: Fluid, jellylike substance between the cell membrane and the nucleus, where organelles are suspended. Function: Serves as a matrix for chemical reactions.
    • Nucleus: The largest organelle; contains DNA. Functions: directs cell activities and contains DNA for protein synthesis.
    • Mitochondrion: Rod-shaped structure bound by two membranes, responsible for releasing energy from food molecules and transforming it into ATP.
    • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A network of interconnected membranes throughout the cytoplasm.
      • Rough ER (RER): Contains ribosomes, helps synthesize proteins.
      • Smooth ER (SER): Lacks ribosomes, involved in the synthesis and metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and other non-protein materials.

    Summary of Organelle Functions:

    • Plasma (Cell) Membrane: Controls materials in and out of the cell.
    • Cytoplasm: Serves as a matrix substance for chemical reactions.
    • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
      • Rough ER: Assists protein synthesis.
      • Smooth ER: Metabolizes nonpolar compounds.
    • Ribosome: Protein synthesis.
    • Golgi Complex: Synthesizes carbohydrates and packages molecules for secretion.
    • Mitochondrion: Transforms energy from food to ATP.
    • Lysosome: Digests foreign molecules, worn, and damaged organelles.
    • Nucleus: Contains DNA and directs cell activity.
    • Nuclear Membrane: Controls material in and out of the nucleus.
    • Nucleolus: Produces ribosomal RNA for ribosomes.

    Levels of Cellular Organization

    • Chemical level: Atoms combine to form molecules (e.g., oxygen, hydrogen, proteins, carbohydrates).
    • Cellular level: Molecules make up cell organelles (e.g., nucleus, cell membrane), resulting in cells (e.g., neurons, muscle cells).
    • Tissue level: Similar cell types grouped together (e.g., nervous tissue, muscle tissue).
    • Organ level: Different tissue types working together (e.g., heart, liver, brain, lung).
    • Organ system level: Different organs working together to perform a specific function (e.g., nervous system, digestive system).
    • Organismal level: The complete, living organism (e.g. a human).

    Levels of Organization in the Body (Summary)

    • Chemical: Atoms form molecules.
    • Cell: Molecules form cells.
    • Tissue: Similar cells grouped together.
    • Organ: Different tissues working together.
    • Organ system: Different organs working together to perform a specific function.
    • Organism: All organ systems working together.

    The Primary Tissues

    • Four types of tissues found in the human body.

    1. Muscle Tissue:

    • Specialized for contraction.
    • Types:
      • Skeletal Muscle: Attached to bones by tendons, responsible for voluntary movement.
      • Cardiac Muscle: Found in the heart, responsible for involuntary pumping of blood.
      • Smooth Muscle: Found in the digestive tract, blood vessels, and urinary and reproductive systems, responsible for involuntary movement.

    2. Nervous Tissue:

    • Composed of neurons (nerve cells) and supportive cells.
    • Neurons: Responsible for generating and conducting electrical impulses and neural signals.
    • Supportive Cells: Provide support and nourishment for neurons.

    3. Epithelial Tissue:

    • Two categories: epithelial membranes and glands.
    • Epithelial Membranes: Cover body surfaces and line the cavities (lumens) of hollow organs.
      • Simple Membranes: One cell layer thick.
      • Stratified Membranes: Multiple cell layers thick.
    • Types based on cell shape:
      • Squamous Epithelium: Flattened cells, found in capillary walls, pulmonary alveoli, and the epidermis of skin.
      • Columnar Epithelium: Tall, column-shaped cells, found lining the digestive tract.
      • Cuboidal Epithelium: Cube-shaped cells, found lining kidney tubules and ducts of exocrine glands.
      • Transitional Epithelium: Can stretch, found in the bladder and ureters.
    • Replacement of Cells: These epithelial layers are constantly losing and renewing cells.

    4. Connective Tissue:

    • Consists of connective tissue cells and large amounts of extracellular material located in the spaces between cells.
    • Types:
      • Connective Tissue Proper: Contains a matrix of collagen and tissue fluid.
        • Loose Connective Tissue (Areolar Tissue): Found in the dermis of skin.
        • Dense Connective Tissue: e.g., tendons and ligaments.
      • Cartilage: Provides support and flexibility, often found in joints.
        • Hyaline Cartilage: Glass-like, found in the nose, trachea, and articular joints.
        • Elastic Cartilage: Flexible, found in the ear and epiglottis.
        • Fibrocartilage: Tough, found in intervertebral discs.
      • Bone: Hard connective tissue responsible for support and protection.
      • Blood: Unique connective tissue made up of plasma and blood cells.

    Chemistry of Life

    • Four essential food substances in humans: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water
    • Carbohydrates: contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; found in rice, bread, fruits
      • Three classes:
        • Monosaccharides (simple sugars): Example: glucose, fructose. Glucose is the major end-product of carbohydrate digestion, fructose is commonly found in fruits and honey.
        • Disaccharides (double sugars): Examples: maltose, sucrose. Maltose is an intermediate in starch digestion, sucrose is commonly known as table sugar.
        • Polysaccharides: Examples: starch, glycogen, cellulose. Starch is a major food reserve in plants, glycogen is the major carbohydrate stored in animals, cellulose is indigestible by humans and makes up the cell wall of plants.
    • Lipids: made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents like alcohol.
      • Two types:
        • Fats: semi-solid at room temperature
        • Oils: liquid at room temperature
      • Triglyceride: a subcategory of lipid made up of three fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule
    • Lipids have various functions in the body: food reserve and energy source, structural materials (phospholipids are important cell membrane components), metabolic regulators (e.g., sex hormones), water-proof layer (sebaceous glands secrete oil in mammals), and protection (fat surrounds internal organs like the kidney, acting as shock absorbers).
    • Proteins: contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; sometimes contain sulfur and phosphorus.
      • The basic units of proteins are amino acids.
      • Amino acids join together to form polypeptides.
      • Polypeptides link to form proteins.
    • Denaturation: the loss of a protein molecule's specific three-dimensional conformation. This leads to the loss of the protein's biological activity.
      • The amino acid sequence remains unaffected during denaturation.
    • Renaturation: regaining the biological activities of a protein.
    • Factors causing protein denaturation: heat, radiation, extreme pH, mechanical force, chemicals (e.g., nonpolar solvents and detergents).
    • Water: makes up 75% of the human body; vital substance
    • Water functions:
      • Good solvent: a medium for metabolic reactions, dilutes waste substances preventing harm to the body
      • Temperature regulator: water has a high heat capacity, helps maintain body temperature
      • Strong surface tension: strong attraction between water molecules, water rises readily by capillary action.
      • Transporter: water in the blood carries nutrients from food to tissues throughout the body
      • Lubricant: synovial fluid helps joints move easily, water moistens food in the digestive tract (e.g., saliva makes swallowing easy).
    • ATP (adenosine triphosphate): the source of energy for biological activities in a cell.
      • ATP <=> ADP + Pi + energy
      • ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
    • Converting ADP to ATP is a method for energy storage until needed.
    • Nucleic acids: two types:
      • Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): acts as the genetic material of all organisms.
      • Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
    • DNA, through transcription and translation processes leads to the synthesis of proteins.
    • Mineral Salts and Ions:
      • Calcium: constituent of bones and teeth, involved in blood clotting and muscle contraction
      • Chlorine: maintains the balance between anion and cation
      • Phosphate: constituent of nucleic acids, ATP, bones, and teeth
      • Fluorine: Important in improving resistance to tooth decay
      • Iodine: a component of the growth hormone and thyroxine
      • Iron: a constituent of many enzymes, hemoglobin and myoglobin

    Cells & Tissues

    • Cell membrane (Plasma Membrane): covers the surface of every living cell, encloses the cytoplasm; composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules (phospholipid bilayer); proteins are scattered amongst phospholipids, functioning as receptors and transport proteins.
      • Functions: controls the movement of materials into and out of the cells.
    • Cytoplasm: fluid, jellylike substance between the cell membrane and the nucleus, in which organelles are suspended.
      • Functions: serves as a matrix substance for chemical reactions to occur.
    • Nucleus: the largest organelle, contains the cell's DNA.
      • Functions: directs the cell's activities, contains DNA for protein synthesis
    • Mitochondrion: rod-shaped structure, bound by two membranes; inner membrane is deeply folded
      • Functions: release energy from food molecules and convert energy into ATP; the number of mitochondria in the cell depends on the cell's energy needs.
    • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): a network of interconnected membranes throughout the cytoplasm.
      • Rough ER (RER): area of ER where ribosomes are attached; Helps to synthesize proteins made by ribosomes.
      • Smooth ER (SER): area of ER where no ribosomes are attached; helps to synthesize and metabolize carbohydrates, lipids, and other non-protein materials.
    • Organelle/component Function Summary:
      • Plasma (cell) membrane: controls materials in and out of the cell.
      • Cytoplasm: serves as a matrix substance for chemical reactions to occur
      • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): rough ER - assists protein synthesis; smooth ER - metabolize nonpolar compounds
      • Ribosome: protein synthesis
      • Golgi Complex: synthesizes carbohydrates and packs molecules for secretion
      • Mitochondrion: transforms energy from food to ATP
      • Lysosome: digests foreign molecules, worn, and damaged organelles
      • Nucleus: contains DNA and directs cell activity
      • Nuclear membrane: controls material in and out of the nucleus
      • Nucleolus: produces ribosomal RNA for ribosomes

    Levels of Organization in the Body

    • Levels of Cellular Organization:
      • Atoms: e.g., oxygen (O), hydrogen (H)
      • Molecules: e.g., proteins, carbohydrates
      • Cell organelles: e.g., nucleus, cell membrane
      • Cellular level: examples: neurons, muscle cells
      • Cell differentiation: the process that cells develop into different cell types
      • Tissue level: examples: nervous tissue, muscle tissue
      • Organ level: examples: heart, liver
      • Organ system level: examples: nervous system, digestive system
      • Organismal level: an example is the human body

    Chemistry of Life

    • Four primary food substances are essential for human life: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and water.

    Carbohydrates

    • Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
    • Found in rice, bread, fruits, etc.
    • Three classes of carbohydrates
      • Monosaccharides (simple sugars): glucose, fructose
      • Disaccharides (double sugars): maltose, sucrose
      • Polysaccharides: starch, glycogen, cellulose
    • Glucose is the major end-product of carbohydrate digestion and is broken down during respiration to release energy.
    • Fructose is commonly found in fruit and honey.
    • Maltose is an intermediate in the digestion of starch.
    • Sucrose is commonly known as table sugar.
    • Starch is the major food reserve in plants.
    • Glycogen is the major carbohydrate stored in animals.
    • Cellulose is indigestible by humans and makes up the cell wall of plants.

    Lipids

    • Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
    • Insoluble in water but dissolve readily in organic solvents like alcohol, acetone, and ethers.
    • Two types of lipids:
      • Fats (semi-solid at room temperature)
      • Oils (liquid at room temperature)
    • Triglycerides are a subcategory of lipids made up of three fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule.

    Functions of Lipids

    • Food reserve and energy source: fats are important food reserve materials and are used when carbohydrate storage is depleted.
    • Structural materials: phospholipids are essential components of cell membranes.
    • Metabolic regulators: some hormones are lipids, such as sex hormones.
    • Water-proof layer: sebaceous glands in mammals secrete oil to waterproof the skin.
    • Protection: fat surrounding internal organs acts as shock absorption.

    Proteins

    • Made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
    • Sometimes contain other elements: sulfur and phosphorus.
    • The basic units of protein are called amino acids.
    • Amino acids join together to form polypeptides.
    • Polypeptides link together to form proteins.

    Denaturation and Renaturation

    • Denaturation: the loss of a protein molecule's specific three-dimensional conformation.
      • The amino acid sequence of the protein remains unchanged.
      • This leads to the loss of the protein's biological activities.
    • Renaturation: the regain of the biological activities of a protein molecule.

    Factors Causing Protein Denaturation

    • Heat or radiation
    • Extreme pH
    • Mechanical force
    • Chemicals (e.g., nonpolar solvents and detergents)

    Mineral Salts and Ions

    • Calcium: constituent of bones and teeth, involved in blood clotting and muscle contraction.
    • Chlorine: maintains the balance between anions and cations.
    • Phosphate: constituent of nucleic acids, ATP, bones, and teeth.
    • Fluorine: important in improving resistance to tooth decay.
    • Iodine: component of growth hormone and thyroxine.
    • Iron: constituent of many enzymes, hemoglobin, and myoglobin.

    Cells and Tissues

    • The cell membrane (plasma membrane) encloses the cytoplasm and controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell.
    • The cytoplasm is a fluid, jellylike substance between the cell membrane and the nucleus where organelles are suspended.
    • The nucleus is the largest organelle containing the DNA of the cell.
    • Mitochondria are rod-shaped structures that release energy from food molecules and transform it into ATP.
    • The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of interconnected membranes throughout the cytoplasm.
      • Rough ER (RER) has ribosomes attached and helps synthesize proteins made by ribosomes.
      • Smooth ER (SER) lacks ribosomes and helps synthesize and metabolize carbohydrates, lipids, and other non-protein materials.

    Organelle Functions

    • Plasma (cell) membrane: controls materials in and out of the cell.
    • Cytoplasm: serves as a matrix substance for chemical reactions to occur.
    • Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): rough ER assists protein synthesis; smooth ER metabolizes nonpolar compounds.
    • Ribosomes: protein synthesis.
    • Golgi Complex: synthesizes carbohydrates and packs molecules for secretion.
    • Mitochondrion: transforms energy from food into ATP.
    • Lysosomes: digest foreign molecules, worn-out, and damaged organelles.
    • Nucleus: contains DNA and directs cell activity.
    • Nuclear membrane: controls material in and out of the nucleus.
    • Nucleolus: produces ribosomal RNA for ribosomes.

    Levels of Organization in the Body

    • Levels of cellular organization:
      • Atoms (oxygen, hydrogen)
      • Molecules (proteins, carbohydrates)
      • Cell organelles (nucleus, cell membrane)
      • Cells (neurons, muscle cells)
    • Cell differentiation: the process by which cells develop into different cell types.
    • Tissue level:
      • Nervous tissue
      • Muscle tissue
    • Organ level:
      • Heart
      • Liver
    • Organ system level:
      • Nervous system
      • Digestive system
    • Organismal level:
      • Human

    Receptors

    • Receptors are proteins that specifically bind chemical messengers with high affinity to convey signals from the outside of the cell to the inside (signal transduction pathway).
    • Receptors can act as transcription factors to alter gene transcription.
    • **
    • Important Words:*
    • Carbohydrate
    • Protein
    • Glucose
    • Amino acid
    • Fructose
    • Denature
    • Maltose
    • Nucleic acid (DNA, RNA)
    • Sucrose
    • ATP
    • Starch
    • Glycogen
    • Lipids
    • Triglyceride
    • Cell membrane
    • Cytoplasm
    • Mitochondria/Mitochondrion
    • Nucleus

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