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Questions and Answers
What is a characteristic of a linear metabolic pathway?
What is a characteristic of a linear metabolic pathway?
Which organelle is primarily responsible for energy production within a cell?
Which organelle is primarily responsible for energy production within a cell?
What method is used to obtain a DNA fingerprint from cells?
What method is used to obtain a DNA fingerprint from cells?
What role do restriction enzymes play in DNA fingerprinting?
What role do restriction enzymes play in DNA fingerprinting?
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What occurs during the digestion stage of metabolism?
What occurs during the digestion stage of metabolism?
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Which structure is found between the outer and inner membrane of mitochondria?
Which structure is found between the outer and inner membrane of mitochondria?
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What is a defining feature of viruses?
What is a defining feature of viruses?
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What is the purpose of gel electrophoresis in DNA analysis?
What is the purpose of gel electrophoresis in DNA analysis?
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What is not a characteristic of gluconeogenesis?
What is not a characteristic of gluconeogenesis?
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What does the Cori Cycle involve?
What does the Cori Cycle involve?
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Which step in the catabolism of fatty acids uses ATP?
Which step in the catabolism of fatty acids uses ATP?
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What is a key feature of the Cori Cycle?
What is a key feature of the Cori Cycle?
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How does lactate play a role in the skeletal muscle during anaerobic conditions?
How does lactate play a role in the skeletal muscle during anaerobic conditions?
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What percentage of plasma glucose turnover is attributed to the Cori Cycle?
What percentage of plasma glucose turnover is attributed to the Cori Cycle?
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What is the primary organ involved in gluconeogenesis?
What is the primary organ involved in gluconeogenesis?
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Which of the following processes occurs during the conversion of lactate back to glucose?
Which of the following processes occurs during the conversion of lactate back to glucose?
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What is the primary function of coupled reactions in metabolic pathways?
What is the primary function of coupled reactions in metabolic pathways?
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Which molecule is primarily produced by the citric acid cycle?
Which molecule is primarily produced by the citric acid cycle?
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What occurs during the hydrolysis of ATP?
What occurs during the hydrolysis of ATP?
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What is the reduced form of NAD+?
What is the reduced form of NAD+?
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Which statement correctly describes the role of a coenzyme acting as an oxidizing agent?
Which statement correctly describes the role of a coenzyme acting as an oxidizing agent?
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What is the energy release from the hydrolysis of one mole of ATP?
What is the energy release from the hydrolysis of one mole of ATP?
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Where does the citric acid cycle primarily take place?
Where does the citric acid cycle primarily take place?
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What type of reactions are depicted by curved arrows when coenzymes are involved?
What type of reactions are depicted by curved arrows when coenzymes are involved?
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What is the primary role of chloride in the body?
What is the primary role of chloride in the body?
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Which mineral is known to work closely with insulin to regulate blood sugar levels?
Which mineral is known to work closely with insulin to regulate blood sugar levels?
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Which function is NOT associated with phosphorus?
Which function is NOT associated with phosphorus?
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What benefit does magnesium supplementation provide?
What benefit does magnesium supplementation provide?
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Which mineral is essential for proper fluid balance in the body?
Which mineral is essential for proper fluid balance in the body?
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What is the role of ubiquitin in protein degradation?
What is the role of ubiquitin in protein degradation?
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Which amino acids are considered stable with a half-life greater than 20 hours?
Which amino acids are considered stable with a half-life greater than 20 hours?
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What is the function of the proteasome in the cell?
What is the function of the proteasome in the cell?
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What type of reaction is involved in the deamination of serine?
What type of reaction is involved in the deamination of serine?
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How are ketone bodies generated when too much acetyl CoA accumulates?
How are ketone bodies generated when too much acetyl CoA accumulates?
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What characteristic of ubiquitin contributes to its functionality in protein degradation?
What characteristic of ubiquitin contributes to its functionality in protein degradation?
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What products are formed from the deamination of threonine?
What products are formed from the deamination of threonine?
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What is the structure of the proteasome composed of?
What is the structure of the proteasome composed of?
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What is one of the primary functions of Vitamin K?
What is one of the primary functions of Vitamin K?
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Which type of vitamins requires bile and dietary fat for absorption?
Which type of vitamins requires bile and dietary fat for absorption?
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What is the primary role of thiamin (B1) in the body?
What is the primary role of thiamin (B1) in the body?
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How are water-soluble vitamins absorbed into the bloodstream?
How are water-soluble vitamins absorbed into the bloodstream?
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Which vitamin helps convert tryptophan into niacin?
Which vitamin helps convert tryptophan into niacin?
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What happens to excess water-soluble vitamins in the body?
What happens to excess water-soluble vitamins in the body?
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What is the involvement of pantothenic acid (B5) in the body?
What is the involvement of pantothenic acid (B5) in the body?
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Which vitamin is involved in promoting normal appetite and maintaining proper cardiovascular health?
Which vitamin is involved in promoting normal appetite and maintaining proper cardiovascular health?
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Study Notes
Nucleic Acids
- Nucleic acids are unbranched polymers composed of repeating monomers called nucleotides.
- Two types of nucleic acids:
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): Stores genetic information and transmits it between generations.
- RNA (ribonucleic acid): Translates genetic information into proteins for cellular function.
- Nucleotides consist of a monosaccharide, N-containing base, and a phosphate group.
- DNA molecules contain millions of nucleotides, while RNA molecules contain thousands.
- DNA is in chromosomes (humans have 46).
- A gene is a section of DNA responsible for a single protein.
Nucleosides
- Nucleosides join a monosaccharide (ribose or deoxyribose) and a base.
- In RNA, the monosaccharide is D-ribose.
- In DNA, the monosaccharide is D-2-deoxyribose.
- Bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T)
- Bases in RNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), uracil (U)
- A nucleoside is formed by joining the anomeric carbon of the monosaccharide with an N atom of the base.
- To name a nucleoside derived from a purine base, use the suffix "-osine".
- For deoxyribonucleosides, add the prefix "deoxy-".
- To name a nucleoside derived from a pyrimidine base, use the suffix "-idine".
Nucleotides
- Nucleotides are formed by adding a phosphate group to the 5'-OH of a nucleoside.
- DNA bases: A, G, C, T
- RNA bases: A, G, C, U
- Nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester linkages to form nucleic acids.
- A polynucleotide has one free phosphate group at the 5' end and one free -OH group at the 3' end.
DNA Double Helix
- DNA is a double helix composed of two polynucleotide strands.
- Strands run in opposite directions (5' to 3' and 3' to 5').
- Sugar-phosphate groups on the outside, bases on the inside.
- Base pairing (A-T, G-C).
DNA Replication
- Replication creates two new DNA molecules, each containing a strand from the original molecule and a new strand.
- Replication proceeds in the 3' to 5' direction.
- The identity of the bases on the template determines the order on the new strand.
- Leading strand replicates continuously, lagging strand replicates in segments.
RNA
- Differences from DNA: ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose; uracil replaces thymine.
- Single-stranded and smaller than DNA.
- Three types of RNA:
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Site of protein synthesis.
- Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries genetic information from DNA to ribosome for protein synthesis.
- Transfer RNA (tRNA): Brings specific amino acids to ribosomes.
Transcription
- Synthesis of mRNA from DNA.
- The template strand of DNA is used to synthesize RNA.
- RNA sequence is complementary to the template strand.
- The informational strand is not used.
Translation
- Synthesis of protein from RNA.
- mRNA carries codons that determine protein amino acid sequence.
- tRNAs deliver specific amino acids to ribosomes.
- Protein synthesis begins with mRNA binding to the ribosome.
- The first amino acid is always methionine (AUG).
Mutations
- Mutations are changes in DNA nucleotide sequence.
- Some are random, others caused by mutagens.
- Point mutations: Substitution of one nucleotide for another.
- Deletion mutations: Loss of one or more nucleotides.
- Insertion mutations: Addition of one or more nucleotides.
- Silent mutation: Results in no noticeable change to the sequence.
DNA Fingerprinting
- DNA is a unique to each person, used to identify.
- DNA is amplified by PCR and then cut by restriction enzymes.
- DNA fragments are separated by size using gel electrophoresis.
Recombinant DNA
- Synthetic DNA with segments from different sources.
- Requires a DNA molecule, an enzyme that cuts DNA (restriction endonuclease), and a gene from another organism.
- Combines the two DNA pieces using DNA ligase.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
- Amplifies DNA segments exponentially into millions to billions of copies using: The target DNA sequence, primers (short polynucleotides complementary to segment ends). enzymes, and nucleoside triphosphates.
Metabolism
- Metabolism = the sum of all chemical processes.
- Catabolism= breaking down molecules, releasing energy.
- Anabolism= building large molecules, using energy.
- Metabolic pathways: linear or cyclic reactions, often coupled.
- ATP is a major energy carrier in cellular respiration.
Digestion
- Carbohydrates are broken down by enzymes into monosaccharides:
- Starch by amylase into glucose
- Proteins by pepsin into peptides (then trypsin and chymotrypsin into amino acids).
- Triglycerides hydrolyzed by lipase into fatty acids and glycerol.
Overview of Metabolism stages
- Stage 1: Digestion (breaking down large food molecules into smaller ones).
- Stage 2: Acetyl CoA formation (molecules degraded into acetyl groups, attached to coenzyme A).
- Stage 3: Citric acid cycle (cycle of reactions that further oxidize molecules, producing reducing agents NADH and FADH2).
- Stage 4: Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation (reduced coenzymes generate ATP).
Coenzyme
- NAD+ and FAD are oxidizing agents in metabolic pathways.
- Their reduced forms, NADH and FADH2 are reducing agents, and carry energy to the ETC.
ATP Synthesis by Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Electron transport chain makes a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
- Hydrogens move through the ATP synthase, creating ATP.
- 1 NADH can make 2.5 ATPs, 1 FADH2 can make 1.5 ATPs.
Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins
- Macronutrients (carbs, fats, proteins) are a source of energy and structural components for the body.
- Carbohydrates are broken down to glucose, fats to fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins to amino acids.
- These molecules are further processed through different pathways to produce energy in the form of ATP.
Vitamins and Minerals
- Vitamins are essential organic molecules for metabolism.
- Minerals are essential inorganic elements.
- Different vitamins and minerals play crucial roles, including but not limited to: Blood formation; energy release; growth and maintenance of various tissues; bone health.
Inborn Errors of Metabolism
- Genetic defects in metabolic pathways may lead to various diseases, resulting from a deficiency or defect in the corresponding enzyme or cofactor for a particular metabolic pathway.
- Symptoms of these disorders vary widely depending on the specific metabolic pathway impaired and its degree.
Urea Cycle
- The urea cycle is a metabolic pathway for eliminating excess nitrogen from the body.
- Converts ammonia (toxic) into urea (less toxic).
- The urea is excreted in urine.
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Description
Test your knowledge on nucleic acids and nucleosides, the fundamental molecules that play crucial roles in genetics and cellular functions. Explore the composition, types, and functions of DNA and RNA. Understand the differences between nucleotides and nucleosides and their significance in biological processes.
