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Questions and Answers
What is a characteristic of isotones?
What is a characteristic of isotones?
What is a nuclear isomer?
What is a nuclear isomer?
What is the charge of an alpha ray?
What is the charge of an alpha ray?
Which type of radiation has the highest penetrating power?
Which type of radiation has the highest penetrating power?
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What is a characteristic of radioisotopes?
What is a characteristic of radioisotopes?
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What is the composition of an alpha ray?
What is the composition of an alpha ray?
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What is a characteristic of gamma rays?
What is a characteristic of gamma rays?
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What is a characteristic of isotopes?
What is a characteristic of isotopes?
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What determines the dose to a particular organ of the body in nuclear medicine?
What determines the dose to a particular organ of the body in nuclear medicine?
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What is the formula to calculate the effective half-life (T½eff) of a radionuclide?
What is the formula to calculate the effective half-life (T½eff) of a radionuclide?
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What is the effective half-life of 131I in the thyroid if T½bio = 15 days and T½phy = 8 days?
What is the effective half-life of 131I in the thyroid if T½bio = 15 days and T½phy = 8 days?
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What is an isotope of an element?
What is an isotope of an element?
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What is a radioisotope?
What is a radioisotope?
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How many protons does carbon have in its nucleus?
How many protons does carbon have in its nucleus?
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What is the biological half-life of an element?
What is the biological half-life of an element?
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Why can radioisotopes of all elements be produced?
Why can radioisotopes of all elements be produced?
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What was the connection to the development of nuclear reactors in medicine during World War II?
What was the connection to the development of nuclear reactors in medicine during World War II?
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Why are gamma-emitting radionuclides more useful for diagnosis than beta-emitting radionuclides?
Why are gamma-emitting radionuclides more useful for diagnosis than beta-emitting radionuclides?
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What is the primary use of beta-emitting radionuclides such as 3H and C14?
What is the primary use of beta-emitting radionuclides such as 3H and C14?
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Why is 32P used for diagnosis of tumors in the eye?
Why is 32P used for diagnosis of tumors in the eye?
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What is the primary challenge in using gamma-emitting radionuclides of common organic elements in clinical medicine?
What is the primary challenge in using gamma-emitting radionuclides of common organic elements in clinical medicine?
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What is the half-life (T½) of a radionuclide?
What is the half-life (T½) of a radionuclide?
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What is the unit of radioactivity, and what is its definition?
What is the unit of radioactivity, and what is its definition?
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What is the relationship between the half-life (T½) and the decay constant (λ) of a radionuclide?
What is the relationship between the half-life (T½) and the decay constant (λ) of a radionuclide?
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What is the assumption made by Planck about the energy of oscillating atoms?
What is the assumption made by Planck about the energy of oscillating atoms?
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What happens to the peak of the radiation curve as the temperature of a blackbody radiator increases?
What happens to the peak of the radiation curve as the temperature of a blackbody radiator increases?
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What is the relationship between the wavelength of the radiation and the temperature of a blackbody?
What is the relationship between the wavelength of the radiation and the temperature of a blackbody?
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What is the name of the law that describes the relationship between the temperature of a blackbody and the wavelength of the radiation?
What is the name of the law that describes the relationship between the temperature of a blackbody and the wavelength of the radiation?
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What is the condition required for Planck's law to be applicable?
What is the condition required for Planck's law to be applicable?
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What is the effect of increasing the temperature of a blackbody radiator on the overall radiated energy?
What is the effect of increasing the temperature of a blackbody radiator on the overall radiated energy?
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What is the term used to describe the wavelength-dependent relationship of the radiation?
What is the term used to describe the wavelength-dependent relationship of the radiation?
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What is the purpose of Wien's displacement law?
What is the purpose of Wien's displacement law?
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What is the unit of radioactivity in the International System of Units (SI)?
What is the unit of radioactivity in the International System of Units (SI)?
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What is the characteristic of an ideal blackbody?
What is the characteristic of an ideal blackbody?
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What is the purpose of creating an idealized blackbody model?
What is the purpose of creating an idealized blackbody model?
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What is the relationship between the total radiant heat output and the absolute temperature of a surface according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law?
What is the relationship between the total radiant heat output and the absolute temperature of a surface according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law?
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What does the emissivity of a body (e) represent?
What does the emissivity of a body (e) represent?
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Which of the following laws describes the energy distribution of blackbody radiation?
Which of the following laws describes the energy distribution of blackbody radiation?
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What is the unit of surface area in the Stefan-Boltzmann law?
What is the unit of surface area in the Stefan-Boltzmann law?
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What is the physical quantity represented by the symbol E in the Stefan-Boltzmann law?
What is the physical quantity represented by the symbol E in the Stefan-Boltzmann law?
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Study Notes
Nuclear Chemistry
- Isotopes: atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
- Examples: 12C, 13C, 11C, 14C, 15C
- Stable isotopes: not radioactive, e.g. 12C, 13C
- Radioisotopes: radioactive, e.g. 11C, 14C, 15C
- Isotones: atoms of different elements with the same number of neutrons
- Isomeric state: atoms of the same element with the same number of protons, neutrons, and electrons, but different energy levels
- Radioactivity: natural elements that disintegrate to emit various rays
- Alpha (α) rays: positive charge, affected by magnetic and electric fields, stopped in a few centimeters of air
- Beta (β) rays: negative charge, affected by magnetic and electric fields, stopped in a few meters of air and a few millimeters of tissue
- Gamma (γ) rays: no charge, unaffected by magnetic and electric fields, high energy photon with high penetrating power
- Radiation doses in nuclear medicine: depend on physical characteristics of the radionuclide, particles emitted, energies, and length of time in the organ
- Effective half-life (T½eff): combination of physical half-life (T½phy) and biological half-life (T½bio)
Radionuclides in Medicine
- Most useful radionuclides emit gamma rays, which are very penetrating
- Beta particles are not very penetrating and are generally of little use for diagnosis
- Exceptions: 3H and C14 play important roles in medical research, and 32P is used for diagnosis of tumors in the eye
- Short-lived gamma-emitting radionuclides of common organic elements (C, N, O) are difficult to use in clinical medicine without an accelerator
Radioactive Decay
- Each radionuclide decays at a fixed rate, commonly indicated by the half-life (T½)
- Basic equation describing radioactive decay: A = Ao e–λ t
- Decay constant (λ) and half-life (T½) are related: T½ = 0.693 / λ
- Units of radioactivity: curie (Ci), where 1 Ci = 3.7*10^10 disintegrations per second
- Subunits: mCi, μCi, nCi, pci
- SI unit for radioactivity: Becquerel (Bq), where 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second
- Subunits: KBq, MBq, GBq
Blackbody Radiation Laws
- Ideal blackbody: absorbs all incident radiation, and none is reflected or transmitted
- Energy output of a blackbody is a function of its temperature and is not spread uniformly across all wavelengths
- Stefan-Boltzmann law: total radiant heat output emitted from a surface is proportional to its absolute temperature to the fourth power (E = eσAT^4)
- Planck's law: relation for the spectral blackbody emissive power, assuming radiation originates from oscillating atoms
- Wein's displacement law: peak of the radiation curve shifts to shorter wavelengths as temperature rises, used to calculate temperatures of hot radiant objects like stars
- Observations from blackbody radiation graph:
- Curves shift to shorter wavelengths as temperature rises
- Greater proportion of radiation is emitted at shorter wavelengths at higher temperatures
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Description
Learn about the differences between isotopes, isotones, and isomers, including their chemical and physical properties, nuclear states, and radioactivity.
