نظرية الليبرالية الجديدة

Liberalism

• Liberalism is not a new school of thought, but rather an established one rooted in various academic fields.
• It is not unique to political science, but emerged from other disciplines, encompassing subjects like economics.
• Adam Smith, considered the founder of capitalism or market economics, discussed this extensively in his book "The Wealth of Nations." This book outlined the foundations of a liberal economic system, later recognized as a capitalist economic order.
• Regarding social life and human interaction within states, numerous thinkers developed the concept of liberalism to regulate individual behavior within a state.
• In the realm of international relations, Immanuel Kant, a 17th-century German philosopher, contributed significantly. His notable work outlined clear perspectives on the nature of international politics, drawing from assumptions and conceptions of political life and international interactions. It aimed to establish the foundations of liberal theory in international relations.
• The concept of democratic peace is linked to Kant, who believed that democratic systems are a means to achieve peace and tranquility among international actors.
• Global governance is another of his concepts, proposed centuries ago.

Intellectual Schools of Thought

• An intellectual school encompasses scholars with specific perspectives on a particular reality.
• These perspectives translate into postulates. For example, realists posit that states continuously strive for power, encapsulating their view of reality.
• However, a postulate doesn't inherently determine truth or falsehood.
• An intellectual school's role is to develop visions and frameworks of a specific reality.
• A theory, on the other hand, seeks to elucidate the mechanism underlying relationships between two or more variables.

Liberal School of Thought

• The liberal school, focusing on international relations, aims to create a specific understanding of international relations – similar to Morgenthau's work.
• Drawing inspiration from human nature, Kant views it as inherently benevolent, opposing conflict, and generally peaceful.
• This is extrapolated to states, reflecting the values, ideas, and norms embraced by individuals within societies.
• Kantian liberalism establishes key postulates to explain international relations, contrasting with realist postulates.

Classical Liberal School Postulates

• These postulates are the complete opposite of realist postulates.
• Immanuel Kant laid the groundwork for the subsequent development of liberal thought in international relations.
• He emphasized that human nature is inherently good and rational.
• Realism, conversely, adopts a pessimistic outlook in constructing its theories.
• Liberalism posits that human nature isn't inherently evil or selfish, but that interactions are not zero-sum—contrary to realist viewpoints. This emphasizes that interactions needn't result in a winner and a loser. Instead, liberals view interactions with optimism, believing in human benevolence.

Key Liberal Beliefs

• Liberals value scientific, social, and cultural progress, emphasizing the rationality and benevolence of humanity.
• They believe in humanity's capacity to develop methods for resolving problems, aided by advancements in various fields.
• Cultural distinctions are significant to liberals. Some cultures promote peace and cooperation amongst states, while others might foster conflict.

Democratic Institutions and Peace

• Democratic states are often perceived as more peaceful due to their cultural predisposition towards cooperation and negotiation, contrasted with non-democracies.

Mutual Interests between States

• Individuals and states may pursue self-interest, but cooperation can still be beneficial.
• This contrasts with a purely zero-sum game, as proposed by realists, who believe one party's gain always comes at another party's expense.

The Ongoing Nature of International Relations

• International relations, although potentially conflictual in some periods, are not inherently conflict-ridden. Historical periods of conflict don't definitively imply a constant state of conflict.
• Progress in science, culture, and the rationality of humankind enable solutions to conflicts.

Diverse State Systems

• States differ based on their political systems and cultures.
• Kenneth Waltz argued that although states might diverge in terms of their systems and cultures, their functions are similar.
• This was challenged by liberals, who emphasized that internal factors significantly impact a state's external behavior.

Evolution of Humanity

• Kant believed that humanity has evolved from a primitive stage to a more developed one focused on well-being.
• This evolution is also relevant to the international sphere, where humans and nations collaboratively develop solutions to resolve conflicts.

Global Harmony

• Achieving lasting peace is a pursuit, but Kant believed that conflict could eventually dissolve through human rationality and the development of solutions.

Potential Global Governance Structures

• Liberals propose two possible frameworks for achieving global peace:
  • A global government: which would regulate and hold states accountable.
  • A confederation: an association of states adhering to treaties and agreements while maintaining sovereignty.

The Security Dilemma

• Liberals offer alternative approaches to the security dilemma, contrasted with realist approaches.
• Divergence on how to secure state interests is viewed with a focus on mutually agreeable solutions rather than conflict.

Liberalism's Strengths and Limitations

• Empirical evidence of democratic peace, global trade, and international institutions are cited as examples of the success of liberal ideas.
• However, criticism suggests the limitations of such evidence, given that factors like nuclear weapons and technological advancements may also have influenced the decrease in global conflicts.

New Liberalism

• New liberalism (or institutional liberalism) emerged in the 1970s, differentiating from traditional liberal thought.
• Its proponents, like Robert Keohane, focused on cooperation as a key aspect of international relations, contrasting with the pessimistic portrayal of international politics in earlier versions of liberalism, as well as realism.

Cooperation and Institutional Impact

• New Liberals stressed that cooperation isn't solely driven by shared interests but also by the modification of state behavior to serve common international goals.
• They emphasized the crucial role of international institutions in influencing state conduct, marking a key departure from traditional liberal theory.

Multiplicity of Actors and Issues

• New liberalism recognized a broader range of actors and issues beyond state-centric security concerns, acknowledging the role of non-state actors like international organizations and multinational corporations.

Weakening State Authority

• New liberalism highlights the weakening of state authority, attributed to globalization and increased interdependence among states, demanding a nuanced view of international relations.

Interdependence

• Increased interdependence necessitates cooperation in addressing common challenges like public health crises, highlighting the need for collaboration amongst nations.

Rise of Global Powers

• The rise of dominant powers influencing other states' policies is seen as a historical trend impacting international relations.

New Actors in International Relations

• The emergence of new actors like international organizations and multinational corporations shifted the focus from state-centric assumptions of international relations.

Practical Challenges to Cooperation

• While shared interests and interdependence are present, factors like conflicting state priorities and potential exploitation hinder cooperation.
• The absence of precise information about state priorities and the fear of being exploited are cited as obstacles to effective cooperation between involved parties.

Limitations of International Institutions

• New liberals identified challenges related to effectiveness, inclusivity, and compliance regarding international organizations.
• Issues such as unequal representation, non-compliance with decisions, and the perception of institutions as reflecting certain state interests are further scrutinized.