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Questions and Answers
What is the common oxidation state of alkali metals?
What is the common oxidation state of alkali metals?
Which property is not typically associated with hydrogen?
Which property is not typically associated with hydrogen?
Which isotope of hydrogen is considered a heavy isotope?
Which isotope of hydrogen is considered a heavy isotope?
Which of the following compounds is commonly produced through the hydrogenation of oils?
Which of the following compounds is commonly produced through the hydrogenation of oils?
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What is the main industrial use of the Haber process?
What is the main industrial use of the Haber process?
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In what form does hydrogen exist at standard conditions?
In what form does hydrogen exist at standard conditions?
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Which type of water is associated primarily with cations and anions of a salt?
Which type of water is associated primarily with cations and anions of a salt?
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What is the primary use of sodium thiosulfate?
What is the primary use of sodium thiosulfate?
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How does tritium differ from other isotopes of hydrogen?
How does tritium differ from other isotopes of hydrogen?
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Which sodium compound is commonly used as a meat preservative?
Which sodium compound is commonly used as a meat preservative?
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What is the function of sodium polystyrene sulfonate?
What is the function of sodium polystyrene sulfonate?
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What property does potassium hydroxide share with sodium hydroxide?
What property does potassium hydroxide share with sodium hydroxide?
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Which of the following compounds serves primarily as an expectorant?
Which of the following compounds serves primarily as an expectorant?
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What is the use of sodium acetate?
What is the use of sodium acetate?
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What role does sodium bicarbonate serve in medicinal applications?
What role does sodium bicarbonate serve in medicinal applications?
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Sodium nitroprusside is primarily used as what type of agent?
Sodium nitroprusside is primarily used as what type of agent?
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Which sodium compound is known for its bleaching and disinfecting properties?
Which sodium compound is known for its bleaching and disinfecting properties?
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What is the primary use of monosodium glutamate?
What is the primary use of monosodium glutamate?
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Potassium dichromate is primarily used as which of the following?
Potassium dichromate is primarily used as which of the following?
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What compound is used primarily for its properties as a laxative and diuretic?
What compound is used primarily for its properties as a laxative and diuretic?
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Which salt is commonly used as a potassium replenisher in cases of hypokalemia?
Which salt is commonly used as a potassium replenisher in cases of hypokalemia?
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What property makes sodium hydroxide suitable for use in soap preparation?
What property makes sodium hydroxide suitable for use in soap preparation?
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Which of the following properties is not characteristic of lithium?
Which of the following properties is not characteristic of lithium?
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Which compound is primarily used in the treatment of bipolar disorder?
Which compound is primarily used in the treatment of bipolar disorder?
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What is one of the main uses of Sodium Bicarbonate?
What is one of the main uses of Sodium Bicarbonate?
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Which water type contains dissolved minerals or materials indigenous to a region?
Which water type contains dissolved minerals or materials indigenous to a region?
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What effect does Sodium have in the human body?
What effect does Sodium have in the human body?
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Which sodium preparation is known as a diuretic and systemic alkalizer?
Which sodium preparation is known as a diuretic and systemic alkalizer?
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Which of the following is a source of phosphorous used in hypercalcemia?
Which of the following is a source of phosphorous used in hypercalcemia?
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What is the main use of Sodium Fluoride?
What is the main use of Sodium Fluoride?
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Which compound is cited as the most palatable saline laxative?
Which compound is cited as the most palatable saline laxative?
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What compound is commonly known as Glauber's salt?
What compound is commonly known as Glauber's salt?
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Which of the following is used as an alkalinizing agent and eyewash?
Which of the following is used as an alkalinizing agent and eyewash?
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Which sodium preparation acts as a cation exchange resin for treatment of hypercalcemia?
Which sodium preparation acts as a cation exchange resin for treatment of hypercalcemia?
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Which of the following water types contains hydrogen sulfide and deposits sulfur upon exposure to the atmosphere?
Which of the following water types contains hydrogen sulfide and deposits sulfur upon exposure to the atmosphere?
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Which sodium compound is primarily used in IV therapy for metabolic acidosis?
Which sodium compound is primarily used in IV therapy for metabolic acidosis?
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Study Notes
Water Types
- Lattice Water: Water molecules held within the crystal structure or coordinated within a complex cation.
- Natural/Mineral Waters: Contain dissolved minerals, suspended matter, dissolved atmospheric gases, and metabolic breakdown products. The composition varies depending on the region.
- Alkaline Waters: Contain significant amounts of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), which contributes to the alkaline pH.
- Carbonated Waters: Become charged with carbon dioxide (CO2) while underground.
- Chalybeate Waters: Contain iron (Fe) in solution or suspension, often giving the water a brownish color and a ferrogenous taste.
- Lithia Waters: Do not contain significant quantities of lithium, whether as the carbonate or chloride.
- Saline Waters: These are purgative waters containing high levels of magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), and sodium chloride (NaCl).
- Sulfur Waters: Contain hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and may deposit sulfur on exposure to air, giving them a yellow appearance.
- Siliceous Waters: Contain soluble alkali silicates.
Water Hardness
- Temporary Hardness: Primarily caused by dissolved calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) bicarbonates. Can be removed by boiling, which precipitates the carbonates.
- Permanent Hardness: Caused by dissolved calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) sulfates and chlorides. Requires treatment with ion exchange resins for removal.
Water for Pharmaceutical Use
- Potable Water: Safe to drink, free of coliform bacteria, and treated to remove insoluble matter.
- Bacteriostatic Water for Injection: Sterile water for injection containing one or more antimicrobial agents. Not intended for intravenous use. Benzyl alcohol is commonly used as a bacteriostatic agent.
- Water for Injection: Pyrogen-free and used as a solvent for parenteral products. Suitable for large-scale manufacturing.
- Sterile Water for Injection: Suitable for extemporaneous compounding.
Hydrogen Peroxide
- Alternative names: Agua oxigenada, Agua oxenada, Oxygenized acid, Oxygenized Water.
- Uses: Treatment of Vincent's stomatitis, mouthwash, antiseptic, hair bleaching agent.
- Commercially available as 10-volume and 20-volume solutions.
- Hydrogen Peroxide Topical Solution, USP: 3% solution containing acetanilide as a stabilizer.
Lithium
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Key Facts:
- Lightest of all metals
- Highly reactive
- Depresses activity in nerve centers
- Stored under oil or coated with petrolatum to prevent reaction
- Teratogenic effect on the tricuspid valve of the heart (Ebstein's anomaly)
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Lithium Carbonate (Li2CO3):
- Widely used for the prophylaxis and treatment of bipolar disorders.
- Last line of treatment for mania.
- Available as Eskalith® (capsules), Lithane® (tablets), and Quilonium® (extended-release tablets).
Sodium
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Key Facts:
- Major extracellular cation
- Stored under kerosene
- Used in optimizing pharmaceutical formulations.
- Promotes water retention - caution in patients with heart and kidney conditions.
- Aldosterone regulates sodium levels.
Sodium Preparations
- Sodium Acetate (CH3COONa): Diuretic, urinary and systemic alkalizer. Used in IV therapy for metabolic acidosis and hyponatremia.
- Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3): Also known as baking soda. Second major extracellular anion. Diverse uses: urinary and systemic alkalizer, carbonating agent, an important physiological buffer.
- Sodium Bromide (NaBr): Treatment and prophylaxis of bipolar disorder and mania.
- Monobasic Sodium Phosphate (NaH2PO4): Source of phosphorus for hypophosphatemia. Used in hypercalemia and as a urinary acidifier. Necessary for activating methenamine (urinary antiseptic).
- Dibasic Sodium Phosphate (Na2HPO4): Fleet® enema, sodium phosphate, phosphate of soda. Most palatable saline laxative available as Fleet®. Dibasic phosphate is the primary anion in intracellular fluid.
- Tribasic Sodium Phosphate (Na3PO4): Forms a very alkaline aqueous solution. Used to clean glass apparatus.
- Cellulose Sodium Phosphate: Cation exchange resin that binds calcium and other divalent ions. Used for hypercalcemia treatment.
- Sodium Potassium Tartrate (NaKC4H4O6): Rochelle's salt, Sal Seignette, Seignette salt. Used as a cathartic agent. A component of Fehling's B solution ( Fehling's A is CuSO4 ).
- Sodium Borate (Na3BO3): Borax (sodium tetraborate Na2B4O7 10 H2O) . Used as an alkalinizing agent, eyewash, buffer, and water softener.
- Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3): Anhydrous form = soda ash. Decahydrate form = sal soda, washing soda, soda crystals. Carbonating agent.
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Sodium Chloride (NaCl): Table salt, rock salt, sea salt, solar salt, brine. Chloride: major extracellular anion. Component of Ringer's solution and Lactated Ringer's solution:
- Ringer's solution: "solution of 3 chlorides" (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2)
- Lactated Ringer's solution: "Hartmann's solution" (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, Na lactate)
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Sodium Citrate (Na3C6H5O7):
- In vitro: Anticoagulant
- In vivo: Systemic and urinary alkalizer, expectorant, and laxative.
- Sodium Sulfate (Na2SO4): Glauber's salt (Na2SO4 10 H2O). Drying agent for organic solvents.
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Sodium Fluoride (NaF): Fluoride ion is highly corrosive. Used in glass etching. Causes painful and slow-healing burns. High toxicity.
- Uses: Anticariogenic agent, topical application for tooth desensitization.
- Sodium Gluconate (NaC6H11O7): Electrolyte replenisher. Gluconate salt is less irritating compared to chloride salts.
- Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3): Chile saltpeter. Use: meat preservative
- Soda Lime (CaHNaO2): Calyx sodica (CaO + NaOH). Excellent CO2 absorber for anesthesia machines, oxygen therapy, and metabolic testing.
- Sodium Nitrite (NaNO3): Antidote for cyanide poisoning.
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Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH): Caustic soda, Sosa, Lye, Soda lye, Liquid sosa.
- Deliquescent (absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and liquefies).
- Hygroscopic: absorbs moisture from the atmosphere without liquefying.
- Efflorescent: releases water to the environment.
- Strong base.
- Uses: Saponifying agent for hard soap, essential for glycerin suppositories preparation.
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Sodium Hypochlorite (NaClO): Dakin's solution (5%), bleach (Chlorox®).
- Uses: Disinfectant, bleaching agent.
- Labarraque's solution: 2.5% solution.
- Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite solution/Modified Dakin's solution: 0.45-0.5% solution used as an antiseptic, wound irrigation, and foot bath.
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Sodium Iodide (NaI): Iodide ions have expectorant action.
- Uses: Solubilizer for iodine in iodine preparations.
- Sodium Monofluorophosphate (Na2PO3F): Anticariogenic agent.
- Sodium Nitoprusside (Na2[Fe(CN)5NO]): NItropress®, a hypotensive agent. Protect from light (photooxidation leads to formation of cyanide).
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Sodium Thiosulfate (Na2S2O3): Hypo, Photographer's hypo.
- Good reducing agent, antioxidant.
- Uses: Cathartic and antidote for cyanide poisoning.
- Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate: Kayexalate®. Preferentially binds potassium, used in hyperkalemia treatment. Cation exchange resin, administered orally or rectally.
- Sodium Sulfide (Na2S): Used to alleviate pain and discomfort associated with ingrown toenails.
- Sodium Saccharin (C7H4NNaO3S 2H2O): Artificial sweetener.
- Sodium Ascorbate (C6H7NaO6): Reducing agent, antioxidant.
- Sodium Formaldehyde Sulfoxylate: Best antidote for mercury poisoning, particularly for bichloride salts.
- Sodium Metabisulfite (Na2S2O5): Reducing agent, antioxidant.
- Sodium Sulfite (Na2SO3): Reducing agent, antioxidant.
- Sodium Tartrate: Used as a laxative and diuretic. Dihydrate form used in Karl Fischer reagent.
- Sodium Starch Glycolate: Tablet disintegrant.
- Sodium Perborate (NaBO3): Mild disinfectant and deodorant. Readily releases oxygen upon contact with easily oxidizable materials.
- Monosodium Glutamate (C5H8NO4Na): Flavor enhancer (MSG, Betsin).
Potassium
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Key Facts:
- Major intracellular cation.
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Potassium Preparations
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Sulfureted Potash (K2SO4): Potash, liver of sulfur, hepar sulfur, potassia sulfurate.
- Mixture of potassium sulfide and thiosulfate containing 12% sulfur.
- Ingredient in White Lotion, USP (Lotio Alba) (sulfureted potash + ZnSO4)
- Uses: Astringent, protective, treatment of parasitic skin diseases.
- Potassium Acetate (CH3COOK): Systemic and urinary alkalizer.
- Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3): Carbonating agent for Magnesium Citrate Oral Solution (MCOS).
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Potassium Bitartrate (KC4H5O6): Cream of tartar, argol. Acid potassium tartrate.
- Ingredient of baking powder used to raise dough.
- Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3): Potash, pearl ash, salt of tartar, salt of wormwood.
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Potassium Chloride (KCl):
- Potassium replenisher for hypokalemia.
- Preferred salt for hypokalemia correction.
- Component of Ringer's and Lactated Ringer's solutions.
- Component of Darrow's solution (KCl, NaCl, Na lactate).
- Component of lethal injection (IV push).
- Available as Kalium Durules® (extended-release tablets).
- Potassium Citrate (K3C6H5O7): Systemic alkalizer, expectorant, diaphoretic, osmotic diuretic. Available as Acalka® (Potassium Citrate ER tablets).
- Potassium Gluconate (KC6H11O7): Electrolyte replenisher.
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Potassium Hydroxide (KOH): Caustic potash, potash lye.
- Deliquescent (absorbs atmospheric moisture and liquefies).
- Strong base similar to sodium hydroxide.
- Use: Saponifying agent for Medicated Soft Soap, USP.
- Soft soap: KOH
- Hard soap: NaOH
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Potassium Iodide (KI): Source of iodide in table salt for goiter prevention (1 part KI to 100,000 parts salt).
- Treatment of hyperthyroidism, preparation for thyroid surgery.
- Solubilizer for iodine.
- Drug of choice for cutaneous lymphatic sporotrichosis (Rose Gardener's disease) caused by Sporothrix schenckii.
- Component of Lugol's solution (I2 in KI).
- Potassium Nitrate (KNO3): Saltpeter. Used as a tooth desensitizing agent.
- Potassium Perchlorate (KClO4): Strong oxidizing agent. Previously used as an antithyroid agent for hyperthyroidism.
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Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4): Mineral chameleon.
- Deep purple color. Strong oxidizing agent.
- Uses: Bromhidrosis (body odor), mycotic infections, poison ivy dermatitis.
- Solutions used to cleanse wounds, ulcers, abscesses, wet dressings, baths for eczematous conditions.
- Potassium Metabisulfite (K2S2O5): Reducing agent, antioxidant.
- Potassium Metaphosphate (KPO3): Buffering agent.
- Monobasic Potassium Phosphate (KH2PO4):
- Dibasic Potassium Phosphate (K2HPO4): Sorensen's potassium phosphate. Combined use: treatment of hypercalcemia.
- Potassium Sorbate: Preservative, antimicrobial.
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Sulfureted Potash (K2SO4): Potash, liver of sulfur, hepar sulfur, potassia sulfurate.
Rubidium and Cesium
- Share similar chemistry properties to the potassium ion.
- Rubidium Chloride (RbCl): Rubidium Chloride Injection, USP (Cardiogen®). Used in cardiac imaging (PET/ Positron Emission Tomography Scan) for patients with suspected myocardial infection.
- Cesium Chloride (CsCl): Used in density gradient configuration.
Ammonium
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Key Facts:
- Pseudo-alkali metal ion, similar properties to Group IA elements.
- Often preferred over alkali bases.
- Aqueous Ammonia: Mild alkalizer.
- Household Ammonia: 10% NH3, known as 16 (degrees Baume) ammonia.
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Ammonium Preparations:
-
Ammonium Carbonate [(NH4)2CO3]: Ammonia crystal, sal volatile, ammonia sesquicarbonate, Preston salt, Hartshorn.
- Pharmaceutical necessity for Aromatic Ammonia Spirit, USP.
-
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl): Sal ammoniac, Salmiac, Muriate of ammonia.
- Uses: Osmotic diuretic, systemic acidifier, expectorant, urinary acidifier.
- Ammonium Alum and Potassium Alum: Tawas: Astringent and antiperspirant.
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Strong Ammonia Solution: Stronger ammonia water, stronger ammonium hydroxide solution, spirit of hartshorn.
- Uses: Primarily for chemical and pharmaceutical purposes.
- Used to prepare ammonia water by dilution.
- Ingredient in Aromatic Ammonia Spirit.
- Ammonium Phosphate [(NH4)3PO4]: Diuretic and buffering agent in pharmaceutical preparations.
- Aromatic Ammonia Spirit: Respiratory stimulant in cases of hysterical syncope.
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Ammonium Carbonate [(NH4)2CO3]: Ammonia crystal, sal volatile, ammonia sesquicarbonate, Preston salt, Hartshorn.
Group IA Alkali Metals
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Group IA: Alkali Metals:
- 1 valence electron
- +1 oxidation state
- Basic hydroxides.
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