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Questions and Answers
What is the common oxidation state of alkali metals?
Which property is not typically associated with hydrogen?
Which isotope of hydrogen is considered a heavy isotope?
Which of the following compounds is commonly produced through the hydrogenation of oils?
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What is the main industrial use of the Haber process?
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In what form does hydrogen exist at standard conditions?
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Which type of water is associated primarily with cations and anions of a salt?
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What is the primary use of sodium thiosulfate?
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How does tritium differ from other isotopes of hydrogen?
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Which sodium compound is commonly used as a meat preservative?
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What is the function of sodium polystyrene sulfonate?
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What property does potassium hydroxide share with sodium hydroxide?
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Which of the following compounds serves primarily as an expectorant?
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What is the use of sodium acetate?
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What role does sodium bicarbonate serve in medicinal applications?
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Sodium nitroprusside is primarily used as what type of agent?
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Which sodium compound is known for its bleaching and disinfecting properties?
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What is the primary use of monosodium glutamate?
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Potassium dichromate is primarily used as which of the following?
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What compound is used primarily for its properties as a laxative and diuretic?
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Which salt is commonly used as a potassium replenisher in cases of hypokalemia?
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What property makes sodium hydroxide suitable for use in soap preparation?
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Which of the following properties is not characteristic of lithium?
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Which compound is primarily used in the treatment of bipolar disorder?
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What is one of the main uses of Sodium Bicarbonate?
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Which water type contains dissolved minerals or materials indigenous to a region?
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What effect does Sodium have in the human body?
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Which sodium preparation is known as a diuretic and systemic alkalizer?
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Which of the following is a source of phosphorous used in hypercalcemia?
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What is the main use of Sodium Fluoride?
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Which compound is cited as the most palatable saline laxative?
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What compound is commonly known as Glauber's salt?
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Which of the following is used as an alkalinizing agent and eyewash?
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Which sodium preparation acts as a cation exchange resin for treatment of hypercalcemia?
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Which of the following water types contains hydrogen sulfide and deposits sulfur upon exposure to the atmosphere?
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Which sodium compound is primarily used in IV therapy for metabolic acidosis?
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Study Notes
Water Types
- Lattice Water: Water molecules held within the crystal structure or coordinated within a complex cation.
- Natural/Mineral Waters: Contain dissolved minerals, suspended matter, dissolved atmospheric gases, and metabolic breakdown products. The composition varies depending on the region.
- Alkaline Waters: Contain significant amounts of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), which contributes to the alkaline pH.
- Carbonated Waters: Become charged with carbon dioxide (CO2) while underground.
- Chalybeate Waters: Contain iron (Fe) in solution or suspension, often giving the water a brownish color and a ferrogenous taste.
- Lithia Waters: Do not contain significant quantities of lithium, whether as the carbonate or chloride.
- Saline Waters: These are purgative waters containing high levels of magnesium sulfate (MgSO4), sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), and sodium chloride (NaCl).
- Sulfur Waters: Contain hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and may deposit sulfur on exposure to air, giving them a yellow appearance.
- Siliceous Waters: Contain soluble alkali silicates.
Water Hardness
- Temporary Hardness: Primarily caused by dissolved calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) bicarbonates. Can be removed by boiling, which precipitates the carbonates.
- Permanent Hardness: Caused by dissolved calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) sulfates and chlorides. Requires treatment with ion exchange resins for removal.
Water for Pharmaceutical Use
- Potable Water: Safe to drink, free of coliform bacteria, and treated to remove insoluble matter.
- Bacteriostatic Water for Injection: Sterile water for injection containing one or more antimicrobial agents. Not intended for intravenous use. Benzyl alcohol is commonly used as a bacteriostatic agent.
- Water for Injection: Pyrogen-free and used as a solvent for parenteral products. Suitable for large-scale manufacturing.
- Sterile Water for Injection: Suitable for extemporaneous compounding.
Hydrogen Peroxide
- Alternative names: Agua oxigenada, Agua oxenada, Oxygenized acid, Oxygenized Water.
- Uses: Treatment of Vincent's stomatitis, mouthwash, antiseptic, hair bleaching agent.
- Commercially available as 10-volume and 20-volume solutions.
- Hydrogen Peroxide Topical Solution, USP: 3% solution containing acetanilide as a stabilizer.
Lithium
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Key Facts:
- Lightest of all metals
- Highly reactive
- Depresses activity in nerve centers
- Stored under oil or coated with petrolatum to prevent reaction
- Teratogenic effect on the tricuspid valve of the heart (Ebstein's anomaly)
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Lithium Carbonate (Li2CO3):
- Widely used for the prophylaxis and treatment of bipolar disorders.
- Last line of treatment for mania.
- Available as Eskalith® (capsules), Lithane® (tablets), and Quilonium® (extended-release tablets).
Sodium
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Key Facts:
- Major extracellular cation
- Stored under kerosene
- Used in optimizing pharmaceutical formulations.
- Promotes water retention - caution in patients with heart and kidney conditions.
- Aldosterone regulates sodium levels.
Sodium Preparations
- Sodium Acetate (CH3COONa): Diuretic, urinary and systemic alkalizer. Used in IV therapy for metabolic acidosis and hyponatremia.
- Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3): Also known as baking soda. Second major extracellular anion. Diverse uses: urinary and systemic alkalizer, carbonating agent, an important physiological buffer.
- Sodium Bromide (NaBr): Treatment and prophylaxis of bipolar disorder and mania.
- Monobasic Sodium Phosphate (NaH2PO4): Source of phosphorus for hypophosphatemia. Used in hypercalemia and as a urinary acidifier. Necessary for activating methenamine (urinary antiseptic).
- Dibasic Sodium Phosphate (Na2HPO4): Fleet® enema, sodium phosphate, phosphate of soda. Most palatable saline laxative available as Fleet®. Dibasic phosphate is the primary anion in intracellular fluid.
- Tribasic Sodium Phosphate (Na3PO4): Forms a very alkaline aqueous solution. Used to clean glass apparatus.
- Cellulose Sodium Phosphate: Cation exchange resin that binds calcium and other divalent ions. Used for hypercalcemia treatment.
- Sodium Potassium Tartrate (NaKC4H4O6): Rochelle's salt, Sal Seignette, Seignette salt. Used as a cathartic agent. A component of Fehling's B solution ( Fehling's A is CuSO4 ).
- Sodium Borate (Na3BO3): Borax (sodium tetraborate Na2B4O7 10 H2O) . Used as an alkalinizing agent, eyewash, buffer, and water softener.
- Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3): Anhydrous form = soda ash. Decahydrate form = sal soda, washing soda, soda crystals. Carbonating agent.
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Sodium Chloride (NaCl): Table salt, rock salt, sea salt, solar salt, brine. Chloride: major extracellular anion. Component of Ringer's solution and Lactated Ringer's solution:
- Ringer's solution: "solution of 3 chlorides" (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2)
- Lactated Ringer's solution: "Hartmann's solution" (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, Na lactate)
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Sodium Citrate (Na3C6H5O7):
- In vitro: Anticoagulant
- In vivo: Systemic and urinary alkalizer, expectorant, and laxative.
- Sodium Sulfate (Na2SO4): Glauber's salt (Na2SO4 10 H2O). Drying agent for organic solvents.
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Sodium Fluoride (NaF): Fluoride ion is highly corrosive. Used in glass etching. Causes painful and slow-healing burns. High toxicity.
- Uses: Anticariogenic agent, topical application for tooth desensitization.
- Sodium Gluconate (NaC6H11O7): Electrolyte replenisher. Gluconate salt is less irritating compared to chloride salts.
- Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3): Chile saltpeter. Use: meat preservative
- Soda Lime (CaHNaO2): Calyx sodica (CaO + NaOH). Excellent CO2 absorber for anesthesia machines, oxygen therapy, and metabolic testing.
- Sodium Nitrite (NaNO3): Antidote for cyanide poisoning.
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Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH): Caustic soda, Sosa, Lye, Soda lye, Liquid sosa.
- Deliquescent (absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and liquefies).
- Hygroscopic: absorbs moisture from the atmosphere without liquefying.
- Efflorescent: releases water to the environment.
- Strong base.
- Uses: Saponifying agent for hard soap, essential for glycerin suppositories preparation.
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Sodium Hypochlorite (NaClO): Dakin's solution (5%), bleach (Chlorox®).
- Uses: Disinfectant, bleaching agent.
- Labarraque's solution: 2.5% solution.
- Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite solution/Modified Dakin's solution: 0.45-0.5% solution used as an antiseptic, wound irrigation, and foot bath.
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Sodium Iodide (NaI): Iodide ions have expectorant action.
- Uses: Solubilizer for iodine in iodine preparations.
- Sodium Monofluorophosphate (Na2PO3F): Anticariogenic agent.
- Sodium Nitoprusside (Na2[Fe(CN)5NO]): NItropress®, a hypotensive agent. Protect from light (photooxidation leads to formation of cyanide).
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Sodium Thiosulfate (Na2S2O3): Hypo, Photographer's hypo.
- Good reducing agent, antioxidant.
- Uses: Cathartic and antidote for cyanide poisoning.
- Sodium Polystyrene Sulfonate: Kayexalate®. Preferentially binds potassium, used in hyperkalemia treatment. Cation exchange resin, administered orally or rectally.
- Sodium Sulfide (Na2S): Used to alleviate pain and discomfort associated with ingrown toenails.
- Sodium Saccharin (C7H4NNaO3S 2H2O): Artificial sweetener.
- Sodium Ascorbate (C6H7NaO6): Reducing agent, antioxidant.
- Sodium Formaldehyde Sulfoxylate: Best antidote for mercury poisoning, particularly for bichloride salts.
- Sodium Metabisulfite (Na2S2O5): Reducing agent, antioxidant.
- Sodium Sulfite (Na2SO3): Reducing agent, antioxidant.
- Sodium Tartrate: Used as a laxative and diuretic. Dihydrate form used in Karl Fischer reagent.
- Sodium Starch Glycolate: Tablet disintegrant.
- Sodium Perborate (NaBO3): Mild disinfectant and deodorant. Readily releases oxygen upon contact with easily oxidizable materials.
- Monosodium Glutamate (C5H8NO4Na): Flavor enhancer (MSG, Betsin).
Potassium
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Key Facts:
- Major intracellular cation.
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Potassium Preparations
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Sulfureted Potash (K2SO4): Potash, liver of sulfur, hepar sulfur, potassia sulfurate.
- Mixture of potassium sulfide and thiosulfate containing 12% sulfur.
- Ingredient in White Lotion, USP (Lotio Alba) (sulfureted potash + ZnSO4)
- Uses: Astringent, protective, treatment of parasitic skin diseases.
- Potassium Acetate (CH3COOK): Systemic and urinary alkalizer.
- Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3): Carbonating agent for Magnesium Citrate Oral Solution (MCOS).
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Potassium Bitartrate (KC4H5O6): Cream of tartar, argol. Acid potassium tartrate.
- Ingredient of baking powder used to raise dough.
- Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3): Potash, pearl ash, salt of tartar, salt of wormwood.
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Potassium Chloride (KCl):
- Potassium replenisher for hypokalemia.
- Preferred salt for hypokalemia correction.
- Component of Ringer's and Lactated Ringer's solutions.
- Component of Darrow's solution (KCl, NaCl, Na lactate).
- Component of lethal injection (IV push).
- Available as Kalium Durules® (extended-release tablets).
- Potassium Citrate (K3C6H5O7): Systemic alkalizer, expectorant, diaphoretic, osmotic diuretic. Available as Acalka® (Potassium Citrate ER tablets).
- Potassium Gluconate (KC6H11O7): Electrolyte replenisher.
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Potassium Hydroxide (KOH): Caustic potash, potash lye.
- Deliquescent (absorbs atmospheric moisture and liquefies).
- Strong base similar to sodium hydroxide.
- Use: Saponifying agent for Medicated Soft Soap, USP.
- Soft soap: KOH
- Hard soap: NaOH
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Potassium Iodide (KI): Source of iodide in table salt for goiter prevention (1 part KI to 100,000 parts salt).
- Treatment of hyperthyroidism, preparation for thyroid surgery.
- Solubilizer for iodine.
- Drug of choice for cutaneous lymphatic sporotrichosis (Rose Gardener's disease) caused by Sporothrix schenckii.
- Component of Lugol's solution (I2 in KI).
- Potassium Nitrate (KNO3): Saltpeter. Used as a tooth desensitizing agent.
- Potassium Perchlorate (KClO4): Strong oxidizing agent. Previously used as an antithyroid agent for hyperthyroidism.
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Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4): Mineral chameleon.
- Deep purple color. Strong oxidizing agent.
- Uses: Bromhidrosis (body odor), mycotic infections, poison ivy dermatitis.
- Solutions used to cleanse wounds, ulcers, abscesses, wet dressings, baths for eczematous conditions.
- Potassium Metabisulfite (K2S2O5): Reducing agent, antioxidant.
- Potassium Metaphosphate (KPO3): Buffering agent.
- Monobasic Potassium Phosphate (KH2PO4):
- Dibasic Potassium Phosphate (K2HPO4): Sorensen's potassium phosphate. Combined use: treatment of hypercalcemia.
- Potassium Sorbate: Preservative, antimicrobial.
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Sulfureted Potash (K2SO4): Potash, liver of sulfur, hepar sulfur, potassia sulfurate.
Rubidium and Cesium
- Share similar chemistry properties to the potassium ion.
- Rubidium Chloride (RbCl): Rubidium Chloride Injection, USP (Cardiogen®). Used in cardiac imaging (PET/ Positron Emission Tomography Scan) for patients with suspected myocardial infection.
- Cesium Chloride (CsCl): Used in density gradient configuration.
Ammonium
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Key Facts:
- Pseudo-alkali metal ion, similar properties to Group IA elements.
- Often preferred over alkali bases.
- Aqueous Ammonia: Mild alkalizer.
- Household Ammonia: 10% NH3, known as 16 (degrees Baume) ammonia.
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Ammonium Preparations:
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Ammonium Carbonate [(NH4)2CO3]: Ammonia crystal, sal volatile, ammonia sesquicarbonate, Preston salt, Hartshorn.
- Pharmaceutical necessity for Aromatic Ammonia Spirit, USP.
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Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl): Sal ammoniac, Salmiac, Muriate of ammonia.
- Uses: Osmotic diuretic, systemic acidifier, expectorant, urinary acidifier.
- Ammonium Alum and Potassium Alum: Tawas: Astringent and antiperspirant.
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Strong Ammonia Solution: Stronger ammonia water, stronger ammonium hydroxide solution, spirit of hartshorn.
- Uses: Primarily for chemical and pharmaceutical purposes.
- Used to prepare ammonia water by dilution.
- Ingredient in Aromatic Ammonia Spirit.
- Ammonium Phosphate [(NH4)3PO4]: Diuretic and buffering agent in pharmaceutical preparations.
- Aromatic Ammonia Spirit: Respiratory stimulant in cases of hysterical syncope.
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Ammonium Carbonate [(NH4)2CO3]: Ammonia crystal, sal volatile, ammonia sesquicarbonate, Preston salt, Hartshorn.
Group IA Alkali Metals
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Group IA: Alkali Metals:
- 1 valence electron
- +1 oxidation state
- Basic hydroxides.
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