Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs and Adjectives

• A verb describes an action, state, or occurrence, and forms the predicate of a sentence
• Examples of verbs include hear, become, happen, play, and dance
• A noun identifies a class of people, places, or things (common noun), or names a particular one (proper noun)
• Examples of nouns include He, She, India, America, and Pencil
• An adverb modifies or qualifies an adjective, verb, or another adverb, expressing place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, or degree
• Examples of adverbs include gently, quietly, then, there, rarely, he swims well, and she ran quickly
• An adjective names an attribute of a noun, such as sweet, red, or technical
• Examples of adjectives include beautiful, tall, many, few, this, that, her, his, which, what, smallest, and tallest
• Precise language uses specific words and grammar for clear and accurate meanings, minimizing misunderstandings
• An imprecise example: The weather was nice
• A precise example: The weather was warm and sunny
• Active voice means the subject performs the action of the verb; passive voice means the subject receives the action

Active and Passive Voice

• Active voice example: The cat chased the mouse
• Active voice example: She wrote a letter
• Active voice example: They built a house
• Passive voice example: The mouse was chased by the cat
• Passive voice example: A letter was written by her
• Passive voice example: A house was built by them

Suffix and Prefix

• A prefix is added to the beginning of a word
• A suffix is added to the end of a word
• Both change a word's meaning
• "Un-" is a prefix in "unhelpful"
• "-ful" is a suffix in "helpful"

Conditional Sentences

• A conditional sentence expresses that one thing depends on another

Zero Conditional

• Structure: If + present simple, present simple
• Example: If you heat water, it boils
• Example: If it rains, the ground gets wet

First Conditional

• Structure: If + present simple, will + base verb
• Example: If I study, I will pass the exam
• Example: If it rains tomorrow, we will stay home

Second Conditional

• Structure: If + past simple, would + base verb
• Example: If I had a million dollars, I would travel the world
• Example: If she knew the answer, she would tell us

Third Conditional

• Structure: If + past perfect, would have + past participle
• Example: If I had studied, I would have passed the exam
• Example: If they had left earlier, they would have caught the train
• Possessive pronouns indicate possession
• Examples of possessive pronouns: mine, yours, hers, theirs

Punctuation Marks

• Period / Full Stop
• Comma
• Question Mark
• Exclamation Point
• Colon
• Semicolon
• Apostrophe
• Quotation Marks
• Parentheses
• Dash
• Hyphen
• Ellipsis
• Square Brackets
• Slash

Directed Writing

• 5W and 1H (Who, What, When, why, Where, How)
• Chronological order
• 5 senses
• Precise language
• Figurative language

Informal Letter

• Informal writing
• Recipient's name: Dear (any direct name) (comma)
• Direct date: example- (2/20/2025)
• Sign offs- Love, Take care, Yours
• Comma after Street or Road, City, and a full stop after Country.

Formal Letter

• Must be formal
• Recipient's name: Dear Mr/Mrs/Sir/etc (Last name) (comma)
• Full date: example- (February 20, 2025) or (3rd of February 2025)
• Sign offs- Sincerely yours, Best regards, Respectfully, Yours truly
• A comma at the end of company name, street or road, city, and country and a full stop after Mr/Mrs/etc (their full name).

Figurative Language

• Simile: A comparison between two different things using "like" or "as"
• Example: She is as fast as a cheetah
• Metaphor: A direct comparison between two unlike things without using "like" or "as"
• Example: His mind is a computer
• Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things
• Example: The wind whispered through the trees
• Hyperbole: An exaggeration for emphasis or effect
• Example: I've told you a million times!
• Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate sounds
• Example: The clock went tick-tock

Alliteration

• Uses repetition of the same initial consonant sound in a series of word
• Example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers
• Idiom: A phrase with a figurative meaning different from its literal meaning
• Example: It's raining cats and dogs
• Oxymoron: Two opposite words placed together
• Example: Bittersweet memories
• Irony: A contrast between appearance and reality (can be verbal, situational, or dramatic)
• Example: A traffic cop gets a speeding ticket
• Pun: A play on words that suggests multiple meanings
• Example: I'm reading a book about anti-gravity—it's impossible to put down

Author's point of view

• First person point of view: The narrator is a character in the story, using "I" or "we." The reader experiences the story through this character's thoughts and feelings
• Pronouns used: I, me, my, we, us
• Example: I walked to the store, thinking about the busy day ahead. It was a beautiful morning, and I couldn't wait to meet my friends

Second Person Point of View

• The narrator speaks directly to the reader, using "you." It is less common in storytelling but can create a direct connection to the reader.
• Pronouns used: You, your
• Example: You walk into the room, your heart pounding. The door slams shut behind you, and you realize you're not alone

Third Person Objective Point of View

• The narrator is an outsider and reports only what is observable (actions, speech) without any insight into characters’ thoughts or feelings
• Pronouns used: He, she, it, they
• Example: She walked into the room and looked around. He sat at the desk, writing furiously. They exchanged a few words but did not smile

Third Person Limited Point of View

• The narrator is an outsider who knows the thoughts and feelings of only one character
• The story is told from that character's perspective
• Pronouns used: He, she, it, they
• Example: He walked into the room, feeling nervous about the meeting. As he looked around, he noticed everyone staring at him. He couldn't help but wonder if they were judging him.

Third Person Omniscient Point of View

• The narrator is all-knowing and has access to the thoughts, feelings, and motivations of all characters
• The narrator may also comment on events or give additional insights beyond what the characters know
• Pronouns used: He, she, it, they
• Example: John entered the room, feeling uneasy. Little did he know, Sarah was already planning to confront him about the secret she had discovered. Meanwhile, James, sitting across the room, thought the tension was palpable but didn't understand the cause

Summary of POV

• First Person: I/we (personal and intimate)
• Second Person: You (direct address to the reader)
• Third Person Objective: He/she/it/they (no access to thoughts)
• Third Person Limited: He/she/it/they (access to one character's thoughts)
• Third Person Omniscient: He/she/it/they (all-knowing)