Non-State Actors in International Relations

Organizations formed by states to achieve shared goals, like maintaining peace or promoting development.

Private groups that aim to achieve social, economic, or humanitarian goals, like protecting human rights or providing medical aid.

Large companies that operate in multiple countries, like Apple or Amazon.

Groups that use violence to achieve political aims, like terrorist organizations.

Coalitions of NGOs, activists, and advocacy groups who work together to promote a specific cause, like environmental protection or human rights.

Networks of experts in a particular field who influence policy decisions through their knowledge, like a group of climate scientists.

The League of Nations was established in 1919 after World War I to promote international cooperation and prevent future wars. It attempted to achieve this through collective security but ultimately failed due to insufficient commitment and institutional weakness.

The United Nations (UN) was created in 1945, after World War II, as a successor to the League of Nations. It aims to promote international peace, development, and human rights. While it faces challenges, the UN's universal scope and commitment to peace make it a significant step towards a more peaceful and equitable world.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, established in 1944-45 following World War II, aimed to stabilize the global economy and rebuild after the war.

The IMF is tasked with maintaining global financial stability and providing short-term loans to countries facing economic difficulties.

The World Bank provides long-term financial assistance to developing countries for infrastructure projects, poverty reduction, and other development goals.

The WHO is a specialized agency of the UN, established in 1948, dedicated to promoting global health and eradicating diseases.

UNESCO, a UN specialized agency founded in 1945, fosters international cooperation in education, science, culture, and communication.

The WTO, formed in 1995, regulates international trade and promotes free trade among its members.

The IPCC, established in 1988, provides a platform for international scientific collaboration and assessments on climate change.

The ICC, founded in 2002, investigates and prosecutes individuals for war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity.

The UN Security Council can impose sanctions or authorize military interventions, but its effectiveness can be undermined by the veto power, which allows permanent members (US, UK, France, China, and Russia) to block any resolution.

The Security Council's decisions are limited by the will of member states' governments, as diplomats often lack independent power to compromise, even when it's in the best interest of the situation.

Despite the veto power and diplomatic limitations, the Security Council's decisions can still have significant impact, even if not approved by all five permanent members.

During the Cold War, the US-USSR rivalry significantly hindered the UN Security Council's effectiveness, but from the late 1980s, there were some successes, such as the independence of Namibia and efforts to end apartheid in South Africa.

The Security Council faced significant divisions regarding the intervention in Iraq (declared illegal by Kofi Annan) and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, leading to a severe impasse. These events highlight the challenges the Security Council faces in resolving contemporary global conflicts.

UN Security Council resolutions 242 and 338, adopted after the 1967 and 1973 Arab-Israeli wars, outline the framework for a peaceful settlement between Israel and Palestine. These resolutions called for Israel to withdraw from territories captured in 1967 and for the recognition of the right of all states in the region to exist within secure borders.

UN peacekeeping operations involve deploying personnel to conflict zones to maintain peace and stability. They aim to prevent further violence and facilitate peaceful resolutions to disputes.

Unarmed military observers from various countries are deployed in small groups to collect information, monitor situations, and report back to the UN on what they observe in conflict zones.

Peacekeeping forces are lightly armed soldiers with a mandate to interpose themselves between conflicting parties, negotiate ceasefires, and generally maintain stability in volatile areas.

These are heavily armed UN forces with the authority to enforce ceasefires by taking decisive action, including the use of force. They are typically deployed in high-risk situations with the goal of preventing further violence.

The Srebrenica massacre occurred in 1995 during the Bosnian War. Despite the presence of UN peacekeepers, Bosnian Serb forces committed genocide, killing thousands of Bosniak civilians.

The Siege of Sarajevo during the Bosnian War saw Serbian forces besiege the city, leading to mass displacement, ethnic cleansing, and widespread human rights violations.

The United Nations (UN) attempted to alleviate the humanitarian crisis in Somalia during the 1990s. UNOSOM I & II aimed to distribute aid, rebuild the nation, and disarm warring factions. However, the mission was unsuccessful due to various factors, including the "Black Hawk Down" incident, which led to US withdrawal and the mission's collapse.

Protectionism, identified as a contributor to global conflict after WWII, was addressed by the Bretton-Woods institutions. To counter protectionism, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) was formed in 1995, succeeding the GATT. Unlike its predecessor, the WTO is a structured institution with a dispute-resolution mechanism, promoting smoother and freer global trade.

The WTO's primary objectives include promoting free and predictable trade flows, fostering multilateral trade agreements, and resolving trade disputes, ensuring a smoother global trade network.

The "Most-Favoured Nation" (MFN) principle states that a WTO member's trade restrictions imposed on its most favored trading partner must apply equally to all other partners. This ensures a level playing field for all members.

The Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) allows wealthier WTO members to offer favorable trade deals to developing countries to help sustain their economic growth. This special treatment doesn't apply to other developed countries.

While the WTO advocates for free trade, it currently faces challenges in making progress. Its effectiveness is hampered by stalled trade negotiations and difficulties in reaching agreements.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) has a dispute settlement mechanism that helps resolve trade disputes between member countries. It involves consultations, dispute panels, and an appellate body, culminating in binding recommendations. If a member country fails to comply, the wronged country can retaliate by increasing tariffs on the non-compliant country.

The WTO's dispute settlement mechanism, while effective for trade disputes, is not applicable to human rights violations. It is designed to address trade barriers and unfair trade practices, not human rights violations.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) like Amnesty International, Emergency, and those working in the Mediterranean Sea play a significant role in global affairs. They often focus on humanitarian aid, human rights advocacy, and environmental protection.

Multilateral trade rounds, like the Doha and Hong Kong rounds, have faced difficulty in liberalizing agricultural trade due to resistance from developed countries, particularly the European Union. They are unwilling to open their agricultural markets further, hindering progress on global trade liberalization.

The rise of international tensions and sanctions has led to a decrease in willingness among countries to negotiate with each other, especially those belonging to different geopolitical blocs. This has contributed to a resurgence of bilateral trade agreements instead of multilateral ones.

Multi-national corporations (MNCs) possess significant power in the global economy and directly negotiate with executives worldwide. An example is Amazon, which is predicted to achieve over $600 billion in revenue this year.

Globalized trade has resulted in substantial adjustment costs for countries around the world, leading to significant political repercussions. States are now less inclined to promote free trade than in the past.

The rise of international tensions and sanctions has led to a decrease in willingness among countries to negotiate with each other, especially those belonging to different geopolitical blocs. This has contributed to a resurgence of bilateral trade agreements instead of multilateral ones.