Biopsych revision (all notes)
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors?

  • They are composed of two parts: a binding site and an ion channel.
  • They cause a rapid change in the membrane potential.
  • They can be either excitatory or inhibitory.
  • They influence ion channels indirectly through a second messenger system. (correct)

    • What is the main difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?

  • Excitatory neurotransmitters are released at Type I synapses, while inhibitory neurotransmitters are released at Type II synapses.
  • Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of a postsynaptic neuron firing, while inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease this likelihood.
  • Excitatory neurotransmitters cause an influx of positive ions (Na+), while inhibitory neurotransmitters cause an influx of negative ions (Cl-).
  • All of the above. (correct)

    • Which of the following is an example of a neurotoxin that inhibits the release of excitatory neurotransmitters at the neuromuscular junction, resulting in paralysis?

  • Tetrodotoxin
  • Tetanus toxin
  • α-Latrotoxin
  • Botulism toxin (correct)

    • Which of the following is NOT a mechanism used to remove or inactivate neurotransmitters from the synapse?

    <p>Activation of postsynaptic receptors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main neurotransmitter involved in movement control and reward circuits?

    <p>Dopamine (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a side effect of L-Dopa, a medication commonly used to treat Parkinson's disease?

    <p>Schizophrenic symptoms (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following drugs works by blocking the reuptake of serotonin, leading to a feeling of well-being?

    <p>Prozac (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following toxins blocks neurotransmitter receptors at the neuromuscular junction, leading to paralysis?

    <p>α-Bungarotoxin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of graded potentials?

    <p>They are all-or-nothing events (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters is the brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter, playing a crucial role in learning and memory?

    <p>Glutamate (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do sounds that originate on the left side of the body reach the left ear before the right ear?

    <p>The sound waves travel a shorter distance to the left ear. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a factor that contributes to sound localization?

    <p>The frequency of the sound waves. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the tonotopic map in auditory processing?

    <p>It helps the brain to identify different frequencies of sound. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do neurons in the brainstem and midbrain detect the location of sound?

    <p>They detect the difference in arrival times between the two ears. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is detecting the location of sound important for animals that hunt at night, such as owls?

    <p>It allows them to locate prey. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of Aristotle's arguments for the heart being the center of the mind is still valid in modern understanding of the brain?

    <p>All animals have a heart. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main idea behind Gall's theory of phrenology?

    <p>The brain's shape reflects a person's personality and abilities. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the cellular structure of the brain is TRUE?

    <p>Golgi believed that nerve cells were discrete entities, disproving functional localization. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the German neurologist who conducted extensive functional mapping of the cerebral cortex based on analyzing head-wound casualties from World War I?

    <p>Karl Kleist (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a method used to study the brain?

    <p>Genetic analysis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using fMRI over MRI in studying the brain?

    <p>fMRI allows researchers to study the brain's function rather than just its structure. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the 'Subtraction Method' involve in brain imaging?

    <p>Comparing brain activity during a task to brain activity during a rest period. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between EEG and ERP?

    <p>EEG captures general brain activity while ERP focuses on specific brain responses to stimuli. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following imaging techniques measures brain activity using light?

    <p>nIRS (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) over other brain imaging techniques?

    <p>TMS provides high spatial resolution and high temporal resolution. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who first proposed the idea of using magnetism to study the brain, citing the advantage that magnetic force does not hurt?

    <p>D'Arsonval (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is TRUE about the study of brain function?

    <p>The brain is a highly interconnected organ with diverse functions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main idea behind dualism in philosophy?

    <p>The mind and body are separate entities that interact. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following imaging techniques provides the best temporal resolution, meaning the ability to capture activity changes rapidly in time?

    <p>EEG (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a valid criticism of phrenology?

    <p>Phrenology is a scientifically valid method for understanding personality traits. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes the connection between cytoarchitecture and functional localization?

    <p>Cytoarchitecture helps identify brain regions with similar cell structures, suggesting potential functional connections. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which technique for studying the brain is most closely associated with the concept of 'functional connectivity'?

    <p>fMRI (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main environmental factor that entrains biological rhythms?

    <p>Light (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is responsible for governing the conversion of serotonin into melatonin?

    <p>Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate duration of the daily sleep-wake cycle in the absence of external cues?

    <p>26 hours (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of biological rhythms?

    <p>Constant and unchanging patterns (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of melatonin in the body's biological clock?

    <p>Promoting sleep and regulating the sleep-wake cycle (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the circadian rhythm of animals with damage to the SCN?

    <p>They display chaotic and irregular rhythmic behaviors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a possible explanation for Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)?

    <p>Lack of light signals hibernation, leading to mood disturbances (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which light entrains circadian rhythms?

    <p>Direct input from the retina to the SCN (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a potential consequence of disruption to the biological clock?

    <p>Jet lag and difficulty adjusting to time zones (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of melatonin therapy for jet lag?

    <p>Inducing sleep at specific times to re-synchronize the biological clock (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these brain regions do Tibetan monks show increased activity in during meditation?

    <p>Frontal and Parietal lobes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of synchronized gamma rhythms in the brain?

    <p>Binding different sensory inputs into a unified perception (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function attributed to yawning?

    <p>Increasing the production of stress hormones (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used for the synchronized firing of neurons across various brain regions, as observed during meditation?

    <p>Neural synchrony (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a neurotransmitter involved in the physiological effects of yawning?

    <p>Acetylcholine (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of NREM sleep?

    <p>EEG pattern is low amplitude, high frequency (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder is characterized by a person entering REM sleep but being partially awakened, resulting in a feeling of paralysis?

    <p>Sleep Paralysis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between nightmares and dreams?

    <p>Nightmares occur during REM sleep, while dreams occur during NREM sleep (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a biological function of sleep?

    <p>Rejuvenation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main idea behind the 'energy conservation' theory of sleep?

    <p>Sleep reduces metabolic rate, conserving energy when food is scarce (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about sleep and memory is TRUE?

    <p>REM sleep is crucial for the consolidation of procedural memories (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following types of memory does NOT require conscious awareness?

    <p>Procedural memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between narcolepsy and cataplexy?

    <p>Narcolepsy is characterized by excessive sleepiness during the day, while cataplexy is a sudden loss of muscle tone (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following brain areas is most active during REM sleep?

    <p>Occipital lobe (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect do gonadal hormones have throughout life?

    <p>They can alter behavior depending on their levels. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a consequence of sleep deprivation?

    <p>Improved cognitive function (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which genetic condition is characterized by short stature and lack of sexual development in females?

    <p>Turner’s syndrome (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is 'sleepwalking' considered a disorder of NREM sleep?

    <p>Sleepwalking occurs during the deepest stages of NREM sleep, when the brain is less active (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a possible side effect of the sleeping pill Ambien?

    <p>Sleepwalking (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region of the brain mediates proceptive behaviors in female rats?

    <p>Ventromedial hypothalamus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of REM intrusion?

    <p>The person experiences a sudden urge to move or talk during the day (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a likely result of androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) in XY individuals?

    <p>Feminization and potential social implications (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which behavior is specifically termed as sexually dimorphic in rats?

    <p>Proceptive behaviors such as lordosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between sleep apnea and insomnia?

    <p>Sleep apnea is characterized by periods of interrupted breathing during sleep, while insomnia is characterized by difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the biological basis of sleep is TRUE?

    <p>Sleep is an active process that is regulated by a complex interplay of brain mechanisms (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of motor neurons?

    <p>To facilitate movement (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes the initial change in membrane potential that can lead to an action potential?

    <p>A sufficient excitatory stimulation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion channels are primarily involved in causing depolarization during an action potential?

    <p>Sodium channels (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the equilibrium potential of potassium (K+) inside the neuron?

    <p>-90 mV (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the sodium-potassium pump's action at rest?

    <p>It generates electrical impulses by allowing ion movement. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do potassium ions contribute to the fall of the action potential?

    <p>They exit the cell due to a concentration force. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What maintains the resting membrane potential of a neuron?

    <p>Differences in ion concentration inside and outside the cell (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the threshold potential required to trigger an action potential?

    <p>-50 mV (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of ion channel is primarily responsible for the propagation of the action potential along the axon?

    <p>Voltage-gated channels (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following brain regions is primarily responsible for promoting wakefulness?

    <p>Posterior hypothalamus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the reticular activating system (RAS) in sleep-wake cycles?

    <p>Promotes wakefulness by activating the cerebral cortex (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters is known to enhance the awake state and is also involved in REM sleep?

    <p>Acetylcholine (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of slow rhythms in the thalamus during sleep?

    <p>Inhibit the flow of sensory information to the cortex (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a sleep-promoting factor?

    <p>Dopamine (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The statement 'Damage to the RAS results in a coma' is attributed to its role in _____.

    <p>Maintaining consciousness (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the amygdala in emotional responses?

    <p>Generating subjective feelings of emotions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the hypothalamus in emotional responses?

    <p>Initiating physiological changes associated with emotions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of an innate fear response?

    <p>Fear of snakes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the Kluver-Bucy syndrome?

    <p>It demonstrates the role of the amygdala in regulating fear and aggression (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of damage to the amygdala?

    <p>Impaired emotional processing and recognition (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following brain regions is involved in processing internal threats, such as pain or discomfort?

    <p>Insula (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the frontal cortex in emotional responses?

    <p>Interpreting physiological changes associated with emotions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the relationship between the amygdala and the frontal cortex in emotional processing?

    <p>The frontal cortex regulates the amygdala's activity to modulate emotional responses (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the James-Lange theory of emotion relate to the concept of "sham rage" observed in animals with cerebral cortex lesions?

    <p>Sham rage demonstrates that the hypothalamus can generate emotional responses independent of the cortex, supporting the James-Lange theory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Stimulates digestion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the role of the prefrontal cortex in emotion differ between children experiencing tantrums and adults with phobias?

    <p>Tantrums in children are caused by overactive limbic systems, while phobias in adults are caused by the prefrontal cortex failing to properly inhibit emotional responses triggered by the amygdala. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the core idea behind the concept of "cortical lateralization" in relation to emotional functions?

    <p>The left hemisphere is predominantly associated with positive emotions, while the right hemisphere is primarily involved in negative emotions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the observation of "asymmetrical smiles" during forced smiles vs. genuine smiles suggest about the control of facial expressions?

    <p>Motor cortex alone can produce smiles, but they lack naturalness because they bypass the limbic system's influence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the role of the amygdala in emotion is TRUE?

    <p>The amygdala primarily generates negative emotions, but can also contribute to the experience of positive emotions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters is MOST closely associated with the experience of happiness and reward?

    <p>Dopamine (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements BEST describes the relationship between depression and the prefrontal cortex?

    <p>Depression is associated with altered connections and communication between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on the information provided, what is the MOST LIKELY consequence of a lesion to the left hemisphere of the brain?

    <p>Increased sensitivity to negative emotions and a more melancholic disposition. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main argument Darwin makes about emotional expression?

    <p>Emotional expression is an innate and inherited characteristic across different cultures. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on the information provided, which of the following is NOT a potential treatment strategy for managing phobias or anxiety?

    <p>Focusing on developing strategies to avoid situations that evoke fear and anxiety. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the proposed mechanism by which beta-blockers help reduce the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?

    <p>By decreasing the activity of the autonomic nervous system, beta-blockers dampen the physiological responses associated with trauma triggers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of the provided text, what is the MOST LIKELY explanation for the observation that patients with lesions to the right hemisphere are often cheerful?

    <p>Damage to the right hemisphere disrupts the ability to process negative emotions, leading to a more positive outlook. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements BEST describes the relationship between emotional responses and rational decision-making?

    <p>Emotional responses are essential for influencing rational decision-making and providing contextual information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

    <p>It is primarily responsible for voluntary movements and conscious actions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What neurotransmitter is significant in the brain's reward circuits associated with drug addiction?

    <p>Dopamine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nervous system is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response?

    <p>Autonomic nervous system (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe of the brain is primarily responsible for visual processing?

    <p>Occipital lobe (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the brain?

    <p>Protection and cushioning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'cytoarchitecture' refer to in the context of the brain?

    <p>The arrangement and organization of neurons (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a function of the limbic system?

    <p>Emotions and memory formation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the parasympathetic nervous system is true?

    <p>It activates salivation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one key feature of the spinal cord in the nervous system?

    <p>It allows communication between the brain and body. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the basal ganglia?

    <p>Controlling voluntary movement (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which receptor is responsible for the sensation of vibration?

    <p>Pacinian corpuscle (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system does NOT belong to the peripheral nervous system?

    <p>Brainstem (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the 'fight or flight' response, which of the following occurs?

    <p>Airways relax (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of sensory organs in sensation?

    <p>To generate electrical signals from stimuli (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves the interpretation of sensations by the brain?

    <p>Perception (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of myelin on axons?

    <p>To speed up the conduction of action potentials (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the refractory period ensure for a neuron after an action potential?

    <p>It prevents the generation of a new action potential until the previous one has fully completed (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion primarily causes depolarization in a neuron during an action potential?

    <p>Na+ (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does hyperpolarization refer to in the context of neuronal activity?

    <p>A decrease in the neuron's membrane potential below resting levels (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect do excitatory neurotransmitters generally have on a neuron?

    <p>They increase the likelihood of generating an action potential (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do calcium ions (Ca++) play at the presynaptic terminal?

    <p>They facilitate the release of neurotransmitters from vesicles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about action potentials is true?

    <p>An action potential can be generated if the threshold is exceeded (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mainly differentiates myelinated axons from unmyelinated axons in terms of conduction speed?

    <p>Myelinated axons use saltatory conduction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of synapse connects neurons to muscles?

    <p>Neuro-muscular junction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of an action potential are voltage-gated Na+ channels closed and K+ channels open?

    <p>Repolarization (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the resting membrane potential of a neuron typically around?

    <p>-70mV (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during the process of habituation in the sea snail Aplysia?

    <p>Weakened response to harmless stimuli after repeated exposure (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes an EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential)?

    <p>It brings the membrane potential closer to threshold (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical role of oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells in the nervous system?

    <p>They produce myelin to insulate axons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the dendrite of a touch receptor when it is stimulated by a feather?

    <p>It stretches, causing ion channels to open. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are the sensory pathways for pain different from those for touch and pressure?

    <p>Pain is transmitted through unmyelinated axons. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do receptive fields play in sensory perception?

    <p>Smaller receptive fields provide greater sensitivity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept describes the arrangement of sensory pathways preserving spatial relations of adjacent receptors?

    <p>Somatosensory organization. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain processes taste information?

    <p>Frontal lobe. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do olfactory signals differ from those of other senses in terms of brain processing?

    <p>They bypass the thalamus and go directly to the cortex. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What recent discovery was made regarding taste receptors?

    <p>Receptors that detect fat. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition describes the phenomenon where one sensory experience triggers another?

    <p>Synesthesia. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of mechanoreceptors in somatic sensation?

    <p>Detect mechanical stimulation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of the olfactory system?

    <p>Olfactory signals can influence behavior via pheromones. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when there is excessive use of a single sensory mode?

    <p>Cortical areas associated with it can expand. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true about the relationship between taste and olfaction?

    <p>Olfaction enhances flavor perception. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of cranial nerves in taste sensation?

    <p>They form the main gustatory pathway. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of sensory receptors in terms of action potentials?

    <p>Stronger stimuli produce more action potentials over time. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of Wernicke's area in the brain?

    <p>Language comprehension (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of aphasia results in fluent but nonsensical speech?

    <p>Wernicke's aphasia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a disturbance in the lateralization of function in the brain potentially cause in individuals?

    <p>Bilateral stuttering (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What event is most likely to result from damage to Broca's area?

    <p>Inability to produce fluent speech (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do sex chromosomes influence physical characteristics?

    <p>They produce proteins that affect traits (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the default gender development in human fetuses if there are no hormonal actions?

    <p>Female (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hemisphere is primarily responsible for language in about 95% of people?

    <p>Left hemisphere (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What function is associated with the preoptic nucleus in the male brain?

    <p>Temperature regulation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the male hypothalamus differ from the female hypothalamus in hormone release?

    <p>Males release hormones steadily (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might cause a person with Broca's aphasia to struggle with speech despite intact comprehension?

    <p>Damage to production areas (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What brain area is crucial for the integration of reading and writing?

    <p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hormones is responsible for the development of male physical characteristics?

    <p>Androgens (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way do the right hemisphere's contributions to speech differ from the left hemisphere's?

    <p>Affects music and emotion in language (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does a loss of communication between the visual cortex and language areas affect reading abilities?

    <p>Causes forms of dyslexia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following components of the ear is responsible for converting mechanical vibrations into electrical signals?

    <p>Inner Ear (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the membrane in the cochlea that vibrates at different frequencies based on the sound wave?

    <p>Basilar Membrane (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the relationship between the frequency of a sound wave and its pitch?

    <p>Higher frequency corresponds to higher pitch. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the outer hair cells in sound perception?

    <p>They amplify certain frequencies of sound. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process of converting sound waves into electrical signals in the auditory system?

    <p>Auditory transduction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements correctly describes the Doppler effect?

    <p>The apparent frequency of a sound wave decreases as the source moves closer to the listener. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a component of the auditory pathway in the brain?

    <p>Hypothalamus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the tonotopic map in the cochlea?

    <p>It enables the brain to distinguish between different frequencies of sound. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does hearing loss occur from prolonged exposure to loud sounds?

    <p>Hair cells on the basilar membrane are damaged or destroyed. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of how the auditory system adapts to different sound environments?

    <p>Outer hair cells change their length, adjusting sensitivity to specific frequencies. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding sound localization?

    <p>The brain uses differences in both the timing and intensity of sound waves reaching each ear to determine the location of a sound. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the tympanic membrane (eardrum) in sound perception?

    <p>It vibrates in response to sound waves, transmitting vibrations to the middle ear. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the size of an animal's cochlea influence its hearing range?

    <p>Smaller cochleas are better at detecting higher frequencies, while larger cochleas are better at detecting lower frequencies. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is TRUE about the complexity of sounds?

    <p>The complexity of sound refers to the number of different frequencies present in the sound wave. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between inner hair cells and outer hair cells in the cochlea?

    <p>Inner hair cells are responsible for auditory transduction, while outer hair cells are responsible for amplification. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is TRUE about the auditory nerve?

    <p>The auditory nerve carries signals from the cochlea to the brainstem. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly compares the function of the middle ear and the inner ear?

    <p>The middle ear converts sound waves into mechanical vibrations, while the inner ear converts mechanical vibrations into electrical signals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is primarily associated with sexual motivation, as opposed to the physical act of mating?

    <p>Amygdala (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential explanation for why women generally perform better on tasks requiring verbal reasoning?

    <p>All of the above. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of dopamine in the context of sexual reward?

    <p>Dopamine underlies the intense pleasure associated with orgasm. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A rat with a lesion in the amygdala will likely demonstrate which behavior in an experiment where it can press a bar to access a receptive female?

    <p>Not press the bar and not copulate when the female is present. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is directly activated by pheromones to influence behavior?

    <p>Both A and B. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference in brain structure observed between heterosexual men and gay men?

    <p>The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is larger in gay men. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a factor that contributes to sex differences in cognitive abilities, as presented in the content?

    <p>Different levels of testosterone (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of damage to the frontal lobe, according to the text?

    <p>Loss of inhibition regarding sexual behavior (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main evolutionary argument for the existence of the sexual reward system?

    <p>To promote the survival of the species (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary neurochemical responsible for the feeling of relaxation after an orgasm?

    <p>Oxytocin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region of the brain is associated with the sensorimotor system and striatum in the amygdala of straight men and gay women?

    <p>Basal ganglia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference in the brain structure observed between straight women and lesbian women?

    <p>Lesbian women have a more symmetrical brain. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key takeaway about the relationship between the amygdala and the hypothalamus?

    <p>They work together to regulate sexual behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential explanation for the differences in cognitive abilities between men and women, as described in the content?

    <p>Brain structure differences can influence how men and women process information. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main takeaway about the role of the frontal lobe in sexual behavior?

    <p>The frontal lobe plays a complex role in controlling and inhibiting sexual behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most likely outcome of damage to the left DLPFC?

    <p>Aggressive sexual behaviour. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between sensory and motor neurons?

    <p>Sensory neurons receive signals from the environment and transmit them to the central nervous system, while motor neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles and glands. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the sodium-potassium pump in maintaining the resting membrane potential?

    <p>The pump pumps out 3 positive sodium ions out of the cell and pumps 2 positive potassium ions into the cell, maintaining the negative charge inside the cell. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the threshold potential for triggering an action potential?

    <p>-50mV (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main force that drives the influx of sodium during the rising phase of an action potential?

    <p>Both electrical and concentration forces (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of ion channel found in neuronal membranes?

    <p>Gravity-gated ion channels (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of ion channels in generating electrical signals in neurons?

    <p>Ion channels selectively allow specific ions to move across the membrane, creating an electrical current that transmits signals. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the potassium ion channels during the falling phase of an action potential?

    <p>They remain open, allowing potassium to continue to flow out of the cell. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the axon hillock in the generation of an action potential?

    <p>The axon hillock is the site where the action potential is initiated. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between the resting membrane potential and the action potential?

    <p>The resting membrane potential is a stable, negative charge, while the action potential is a brief, rapid change in membrane potential. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a factor that contributes to the movement of ions across the neuronal membrane?

    <p>Gravity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does sound localization primarily occur in the human auditory system?

    <p>By integrating timing and intensity differences between the ears (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do neurons in the primary auditory cortex play in processing sound?

    <p>They respond to different frequencies and are arranged in a tonotopic map (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the detection of sound location especially important for nocturnal animals like owls?

    <p>Their eyesight is limited in low light conditions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do differences in sound intensity between the ears contribute to sound localization?

    <p>Differences in intensity help to triangulate the source's position (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when a sound originates from the left side of the body?

    <p>It is perceived as being louder in the left ear (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Turner’s syndrome characterized by?

    <p>Short stature and lack of sexual development in females (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) affect XX individuals?

    <p>It causes a masculine phenotype due to high androgen levels. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain mediates the mating behaviors of female rats?

    <p>Hypothalamus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS), what is the effect on XY individuals?

    <p>Phenotypic feminization due to lack of androgen response (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of gonadal hormones in relation to the brain?

    <p>They influence behavior throughout life by modulating neurologic activity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism through which metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors influence ion channels?

    <p>Detaching a subunit that subsequently opens the ion channel (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect do excitatory neurotransmitters primarily have on the postsynaptic neuron?

    <p>They lead to an influx of positive ions, bringing the neuron closer to the threshold (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with inhibitory functions in the brain?

    <p>GABA (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can occur if neurotransmitters are not effectively removed or inactivated in the synapse?

    <p>Excitotoxicity leading to neuronal damage (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does cocaine affect dopamine levels in the brain?

    <p>It prevents the reuptake of dopamine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about ionotropic and metabotropic receptors?

    <p>Metabotropic receptors influence ion channels indirectly and operate slower. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary role of glutamate in the brain?

    <p>Being the brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common outcome of the drug levo-dopa for Parkinson's disease patients?

    <p>Temporary relief of Parkinsonian symptoms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mechanism does alcohol primarily use to exert its effects in the brain?

    <p>Stimulating GABA receptors while inhibiting glutamate receptors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of a-latrotoxin released by the black widow spider?

    <p>It causes excessive release of neurotransmitters at the neuromuscular junction. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate frequency range of synchronized gamma rhythms associated with binding various neural components into a single perceptual construct?

    <p>30-80 Hz (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of action potentials, what does the term 'depolarization' refer to?

    <p>The process of the axon membrane becoming more positive due to the influx of sodium ions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of synapse releases excitatory neurotransmitters?

    <p>Type I synapse (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the sodium-potassium pump in maintaining the resting potential of a neuron?

    <p>It pumps sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What brain region is responsible for regulating the perception of fear based on both direct and indirect signals from the amygdala?

    <p>Prefrontal Cortex (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Kluver-Bucy syndrome?

    <p>Increased aggression (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key role of the amygdala in learning to fear a neutral stimulus, like a tone, after it is paired with a negative experience, like an electric shock?

    <p>The amygdala links the neutral sensory stimulus (tone) with the aversive experience (electric shock). (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the case study of patient SM, who had bilateral damage to the amygdala, reveal about the role of the amygdala in emotional processing?

    <p>SM showed a specific impairment in recognizing and experiencing fear, compared to other emotions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the amygdala contribute to the body's physiological response to fear?

    <p>It sends signals to the hypothalamus, which then triggers physiological changes through the autonomic nervous system. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describe the role of the cerebral cortex in emotional processing?

    <p>The cerebral cortex is responsible for interpreting the physiological changes associated with emotions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the reticular activating system (RAS) in sleep regulation?

    <p>RAS neurons fire during wakefulness to maintain an alert state and facilitate sensory processing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters promotes wakefulness and enhances the awake state?

    <p>Acetylcholine (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of slow rhythms in sleep?

    <p>Slow rhythms block the flow of sensory information to the cortex, leading to a decrease in conscious awareness. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors is DIRECTLY linked to the regulation of sleep and can be triggered by an immune response to infection?

    <p>Muramyl Peptides (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which adenosine promotes sleep?

    <p>Adenosine inhibits the activity of neurons in the reticular activating system, promoting sleep. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between the immune system and sleep?

    <p>Sleep deprivation weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following brain regions is NOT directly involved in the regulation of REM sleep?

    <p>Amygdala (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between Non-REM sleep and REM sleep?

    <p>Non-REM sleep involves a decrease in brain activity and muscle tone, while REM sleep involves increased brain activity and muscle atonia. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sleep talking, a phenomenon that occurs during sleep, is believed to be a consequence of what breakdown?

    <p>Breakdown in the link between conscious expression and non-conscious expression during dreaming. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with reward circuits in the brain?

    <p>Dopamine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the limbic system play in the brain?

    <p>Navigating space and memory formation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the sympathetic nervous system primarily respond to threats?

    <p>Accelerates heartbeat (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the sensory organs in the sensation process?

    <p>Generate electrical signals (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the parasympathetic nervous system from the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>It promotes 'rest and digest' functions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of sensory receptors is primarily involved in detecting deep pressure?

    <p>Pacinian corpuscles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What component of the brainstem regulates processes such as breathing and heartbeat?

    <p>Hindbrain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for reasoning and decision-making?

    <p>Frontal lobe (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the brain?

    <p>Acts as a cushion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure separates the two cerebral hemispheres?

    <p>Longitudinal fissure (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does proprioception refer to?

    <p>Body awareness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the fight or flight response initiated by the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Dilated pupils (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of myelin in neurons?

    <p>To insulate the axon and increase conduction speed (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the depolarization phase of an action potential?

    <p>Sodium ions rush into the cell (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does saltatory conduction benefit neuronal signaling?

    <p>It allows action potentials to jump between nodes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased firing rate in neurons?

    <p>It reflects a stronger stimulus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following ions is primarily involved in triggering neurotransmitter release?

    <p>Calcium ions (Ca++) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of action potentials?

    <p>They are indeed all-or-nothing events (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What potential ion movement is responsible for repolarization during an action potential?

    <p>Potassium ions exiting the neuron (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the role of the synapse in neuronal communication?

    <p>It mediates the release of neurotransmitters between neurons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the balance between excitatory and inhibitory signals affect neural function?

    <p>It maintains proper functioning and prevents conditions like seizures (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes hyperpolarization in a neuron?

    <p>It results in the cell becoming more negatively charged (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the nodes of Ranvier in myelinated axons?

    <p>To allow action potentials to regenerate (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process occurs when a neuron is exposed to a consistent stimulus that results in a diminished response?

    <p>Habituation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens at the presynaptic terminal when an action potential arrives?

    <p>Calcium channels open, leading to neurotransmitter release (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the generation of an action potential at the axon hillock?

    <p>The threshold potential is reached due to depolarization (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of axons carry pain signals in the somatic sensory system?

    <p>Unmyelinated axons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is NOT part of somatic sensation?

    <p>Hearing (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a receptive field?

    <p>An area of the body that a sensory receptor is sensitive to (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the strength of a stimulus indicated by sensory receptors?

    <p>By the frequency of action potentials fired (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily involved in processing touch sensations?

    <p>Parietal lobe (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do adjacent body parts relate in the brain's sensory pathways?

    <p>Spatial relations of adjacent receptors are preserved (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the olfactory system in sensing smells?

    <p>It bypasses the thalamus and connects directly to the limbic system (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is TRUE about taste receptors?

    <p>They can detect multiple basic tastes simultaneously (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes synesthesia?

    <p>The condition of experiencing multiple senses simultaneously (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are taste receptors predominantly located?

    <p>On the tongue in taste buds (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does excessive use of a single sense have on the brain?

    <p>It can cause expansion of relevant cortical areas (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is flavor primarily perceived?

    <p>Through a combination of taste and olfaction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a recent discovery about taste?

    <p>Receptors specific to fat have been discovered (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do peripheral sensory receptors create to communicate stimulus strength?

    <p>The frequency of action potentials (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily determines the pitch of a sound?

    <p>The frequency of sound waves (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does an increase in amplitude affect the sound we hear?

    <p>It makes the sound seem louder. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do hair cells play in the cochlea?

    <p>They convert sound vibrations into electrical signals. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of the Doppler effect on sound frequency as the sound source approaches?

    <p>The frequency increases, resulting in a higher pitch. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sound frequency range is typically associated with human speech?

    <p>1,000-3,000 Hz (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cellular structure connects the outer hair cells to the tectorial membrane?

    <p>Tectorial membrane (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the ossicles in the middle ear?

    <p>To amplify sound waves for the cochlea (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical feature allows the cochlea to discriminate between different frequencies of sound?

    <p>Basilar membrane tonotopic map (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the auditory pathway processes signals from the cochlea before they reach the cerebral cortex?

    <p>Thalamus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical range of audible frequencies for humans?

    <p>20-20,000 Hz (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the cochlea improve sensitivity to specific frequencies during auditory processing?

    <p>By selectively bending hair cells according to frequency (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does repeated exposure to loud noises have on hair cells in the cochlea?

    <p>They can become damaged or lost. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily responsible for converting sound waves into electrical signals as sound travels through the ear?

    <p>Cochlea (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which auditory phenomenon describes the ability to focus on a single voice in a noisy environment?

    <p>Cocktail party effect (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site in the brain that governs the daily sleep-wake cycle?

    <p>Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does light function as a zeitgeber in biological rhythms?

    <p>By influencing the activity of the SCN (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of lacking light during winter months as it relates to Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)?

    <p>It signals hibernation and can cause depression (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormonal change occurs due to the action of the SCN during the dark phase of the day-night cycle?

    <p>Increased melatonin secretion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Broca's area in the brain?

    <p>Motor control of speech production (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a person’s tendency to be an early riser or a night owl as they age?

    <p>Changes with increased age (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to an animal's circadian rhythm if the SCN is damaged?

    <p>It becomes chaotic and irregular (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes Wernicke’s aphasia?

    <p>Fluent but nonsensical speech (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does a single gene mutation have on the circadian rhythm of certain hamsters?

    <p>Shortens the cycle to 20 hours (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is primarily responsible for processing emotional content in language?

    <p>Right hemisphere (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of melatonin in managing jet lag?

    <p>It resets the biological clock artificially (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to language areas in the brain by the age of 5 in most individuals?

    <p>They shift to the left hemisphere (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fundamental relationship between genotype and phenotype as it pertains to social factors?

    <p>Social factors modulate phenotypical expression of the genotype (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of Broca's aphasia?

    <p>Non-fluent speech despite normal comprehension (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is essential for the development of male sexual characteristics during prenatal development?

    <p>Testosterone (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the expected duration of the daily sleep-wake cycle in the absence of external cues?

    <p>Approximately 26 hours (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is closely related to disruptions in the lateralization of language functions?

    <p>Stuttering (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are reading and writing different from basic language skills?

    <p>They require visual and motor cortex involvement (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Mullerian inhibitory hormone during fetal development?

    <p>Inhibits the development of female reproductive structures (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical area differs in size between male and female brains as noted in research?

    <p>Preoptic nucleus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What possible outcome results from dysregulation in the flow of information between reading/writing areas and language areas?

    <p>Emergence of dyslexia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does testosterone have on the brain postnatally?

    <p>Influences the size of sexual dimorphic nuclei (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between sex hormones and the phenotypic expression of sex characteristics?

    <p>Phenotype results from both genotype and hormonal action (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the right hemisphere's function is accurate?

    <p>It processes rhythm and melody in music (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to brain wave patterns as a person transitions from wakefulness to deep sleep?

    <p>They change to high amplitude, low frequency in deep sleep. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disorder is characterized by inappropriate falling asleep during the day?

    <p>Narcolepsy (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage of sleep is the body physically paralyzed?

    <p>REM sleep (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological changes occur in the body during NREM sleep?

    <p>Decreased body temperature and decreased heart rate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible consequence of sleep deprivation?

    <p>Increased levels of Nitric Oxide Synthase. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of memory does sleep contribute to during REM sleep?

    <p>Declarative memory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon involves complex behaviors performed while sleeping?

    <p>Somnambulism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What often causes nightmares during sleep?

    <p>Experiences during NREM sleep. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of sleep disorders, what is cataplexy?

    <p>Sudden loss of muscle tone during waking moments. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What brain region involves coordination of automatic movements during sleepwalking?

    <p>Cerebellum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the state of the EEG during REM sleep?

    <p>Low amplitude, high frequency. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding the effects of sleep on learning?

    <p>Sleep leads to improved procedural memory acquisition. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of REM intrusion?

    <p>Entering REM sleep during inappropriate times. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the biological functions of sleep related to energy conservation?

    <p>Promoting predator avoidance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Aristotle's argument that all animals have a heart, while supporting his view of the heart as the center of mind, is challenged by the modern understanding that:

    <p>Invertebrates, despite lacking a brain, exhibit sensations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Descartes proposed a theory known as dualism, which posits that:

    <p>Behavior is controlled by two distinct entities, the mind and the body. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best captures Gall's view on phrenology?

    <p>Each mental faculty has a corresponding organ in the brain, and the size of the organ reflects its power. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Golgi's research on the cellular structure of the brain challenged the concept of functional localization by suggesting that:

    <p>The brain is a complex network of interconnected tubes, suggesting a holistic rather than localized processing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Brodmann's approach to studying the brain involved:

    <p>Mapping the brain based on the cellular structure and grouping similar-looking cells together. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Karl Kleist's research on head-wound casualties from World War I contributed significantly to our understanding of:

    <p>The influence of brain lesions on personality and behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following imaging techniques offers the best spatial resolution, enabling precise identification of brain areas involved in a particular task?

    <p>fMRI (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The 'Subtraction Method' employed in brain imaging involves:

    <p>Comparing brain activity during a control task to activity during a task of interest. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The main difference between EEG and ERP is that:

    <p>EEG measures electrical activity in the brain, while ERP measures the electrical activity in response to specific events. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following imaging techniques uses light to measure brain activity?

    <p>NIRS (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) over other brain imaging techniques?

    <p>TMS can be used to both measure and manipulate brain activity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the first to propose the use of magnetism to study the brain, emphasizing the safety advantage of magnetic force?

    <p>D'Arsonval (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the study of brain function is TRUE?

    <p>Complex behaviors typically involve the coordinated activity of numerous brain areas. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the connection between cytoarchitecture and functional localization?

    <p>Functional localization is inferred based on studying cytoarchitecture, suggesting a link. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

    <p>Emotions are caused by changes in physiological states. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is crucial for the expression of sham rage?

    <p>Hypothalamus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system in emotional responses?

    <p>It prepares the body for action or 'fight-or-flight' response. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the perception of emotions in individuals with spinal cord injuries?

    <p>Emotions are reduced in intensity, particularly those related to physical sensations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of lesions to the prefrontal cortex in monkeys?

    <p>Reduced anxiety and stress levels. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the frontal lobes in emotional responses?

    <p>Processing and interpreting the emotional significance of events. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the connection between tantrums in children and the development of phobias in adults?

    <p>The failure to develop strong connections between the frontal lobes and the limbic system can lead to both tantrums and phobias. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of beta-blockers in treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?

    <p>They block the release of adrenaline and noradrenaline, reducing physiological arousal. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary neurochemical associated with feelings of happiness?

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    Which brain region is primarily responsible for generating negative emotions?

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    What is the connection between serotonin levels and aggression?

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    Which brain hemisphere is more involved in processing negative emotions?

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    What is the difference between a genuine smile and a fake smile?

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    How do emotional responses differ between children and adults?

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    What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in sexual behavior?

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    How does damage to the amygdala affect male rats in terms of sexual behavior?

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    What condition might result from damage to the frontal lobe?

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    What role does dopamine play in sexual behavior?

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    Which of the following statements is true about pheromones?

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    What does research suggest about spatial reasoning skills between sexes?

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    Which area of the brain has shown differences between gay and straight individuals regarding sexual orientation?

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    Which neurotransmitter is associated with feelings of relaxation after sexual activity?

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    In which sex do lesions in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) likely result in aggressive sexual behavior?

    <p>Males (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are cognitive abilities correlated to sex, according to the provided content?

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    What brain structure is significantly larger in males compared to females?

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    What keeps sexual behavior instinctual across species?

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    What neurotransmitter is released in response to orgasm that also plays a role in pair bonding?

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    How does the processing of sexual cues differ in males and females according to the content?

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    Flashcards

    Motor neurons

    Neurons responsible for movement in the body.

    Sensory neurons

    Neurons that transmit sensory information to the brain.

    Action potential

    An electrical impulse that travels down a neuron when stimulated.

    Ion channels

    Proteins in membranes that control ion flow into/out of neurons.

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    Resting membrane potential

    The voltage across a neuron's membrane at rest, typically -65mV.

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    Sodium-potassium pump

    A pump that moves Na+ out and K+ into the neuron, maintaining gradients.

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    Equilibrium potential of K+

    The electrical potential at which K+ is in balance, usually -90mV.

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    Threshold for action potential

    The critical level (-50mV) that must be reached to trigger an action potential.

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    Depolarization

    The process when Na+ enters the neuron, causing the charge to become positive.

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    Repolarization

    Return of the neuron to a negative charge after action potential, mainly due to K+ outflow.

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    Aristotle's View

    Believed the heart, not the brain, is the center of the mind.

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    Mind-Body Dualism

    The theory that the mind and body are separate entities controlling behavior.

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    Phrenology

    Study of the skull's shape to determine mental faculties and character traits.

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    Functional Localization

    Different parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions.

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    Cellular Structure of the Brain

    The brain consists of discrete nerve cells rather than a continuous network.

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    Broca's Area

    Brain region linked with speech production.

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    Wernicke's Area

    Brain region associated with language comprehension.

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    Phineas Gage

    A case study showing personality changes after frontal lobe damage.

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    MRI vs. fMRI

    MRI scans anatomy, fMRI measures brain function through blood flow.

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    EEG

    Technique measuring electrical activity in the brain using scalp electrodes.

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    TMS

    Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, used to map brain areas and study timing.

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    Neuropsychology

    Study of the relationship between brain lesions and changes in behavior.

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    Near Infra-Red Spectroscopy (nIRS)

    Technique using light to measure brain activity at specific locations.

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    Statistical Map (fMRI)

    Output from fMRI showing brain areas activated during tasks.

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    Spatial vs. Temporal Resolution

    Spatial resolution indicates where activity occurs; temporal shows when it happens.

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    Hyperpolarization

    An increase in a cell's membrane potential, making it more negative than the resting potential.

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    Myelin

    A fatty substance that insulates axons to speed up action potentials.

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    Saltatory conduction

    The process of action potentials jumping between nodes of Ranvier in myelinated axons.

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    Refractory period

    The time following an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire another action potential.

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    Neurotransmitter

    Chemicals released at the synapse to transmit signals between neurons.

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    Excitatory effect

    A neurotransmitter effect that increases the likelihood of an action potential.

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    Inhibitory effect

    A neurotransmitter effect that decreases the likelihood of an action potential.

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    Equilibrium

    The state where ion movements balance out, maintaining resting potential.

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    Action potential threshold

    The critical level (-50mV) that must be reached to trigger an action potential.

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    Calcium's role in synapse

    Calcium ions trigger the release of neurotransmitters at the synapse.

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    EPSP and IPSP

    Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP) are changes in potential due to neurotransmitter action.

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    Ionotropic Receptors

    Neurotransmitter receptors that directly control ion channels, allowing ions to enter the cell upon neurotransmitter binding.

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    Metabotropic Receptors

    Neurotransmitter receptors that influence ion channels indirectly, resulting in slower, long-lasting effects.

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    Excitatory Neurotransmitters

    Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood of action potentials by causing an influx of positive ions (Na+).

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    Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

    Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood of action potentials by causing an influx of negative ions (Cl-).

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    Neurotransmitter Removal

    The process by which neurotransmitters are inactivated to prevent overstimulation of post-synaptic neurons.

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    Glutamate

    The brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter, essential for learning and memory formation.

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    GABA

    The brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter, crucial for calming neuronal activity.

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    Dopamine

    A neurotransmitter associated with movement control and reward pathways in the brain.

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    Botulism Toxin

    A neurotoxin that prevents the release of excitatory neurotransmitters, leading to muscle paralysis.

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    Cocaine

    A drug that prevents the reuptake of dopamine, prolonging its effects and leading to heightened arousal.

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    Reward System

    A brain system that gives pleasurable feelings when engaging in survival activities.

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    Addictive Drugs

    Substances like cocaine and heroin that activate the brain's reward system.

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    Cerebrum

    The largest part of the brain, composed of two hemispheres and responsible for higher brain functions.

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    Frontal Lobe

    Brain area responsible for movement, thinking, planning, and decision-making.

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    Occipital Lobe

    Brain area primarily responsible for visual processing.

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    Parietal Lobe

    Brain region involved in touch, balance, and movement.

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    Temporal Lobe

    Part of the brain linked to hearing, memory, and visual recognition.

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    Basal Ganglia

    Group of structures in the brain important for voluntary movement control.

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    Limbic System

    Brain system crucial for navigation, memory formation, and emotions.

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    Sympathetic Nervous System

    Part of the autonomic nervous system, it activates the 'fight or flight' response.

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    Parasympathetic Nervous System

    Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for 'rest and digest' activities.

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    Sensation

    The process of detecting physical stimuli through sensory organs.

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    Perception

    The brain's interpretation of sensory signals.

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    Somatosensation

    The body's ability to sense touch, pain, and temperature.

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    Sound localization

    The ability to determine the origin of a sound based on information received from both ears.

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    Interaural time difference

    The difference in time it takes for sound to reach each ear, helping locate sounds.

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    Interaural level difference

    The difference in loudness of a sound reaching each ear, aiding in sound localization.

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    Tonotopic map

    The arrangement of neurons in the auditory cortex, organized by sound frequency.

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    Auditory neurons

    Neurons in the primary auditory cortex that respond to specific sound frequencies.

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    Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

    A brain region with more neurons in males than females, regulating circadian rhythms.

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    Turner's Syndrome

    A genetic condition (XO) causing short stature and lack of sexual development in females.

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    Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

    A condition with high androgens, leading to a masculine phenotype in XX individuals.

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    Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)

    A genetic condition where XY individuals are unresponsive to androgens, resulting in feminization.

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    Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors

    Behavior differences between male and female animals, e.g., mating rituals.

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    Sensory Receptors

    Specialized dendrites that open ion channels when stimulated.

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    Receptive Field

    Area of the body that a sensory receptor responds to.

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    Somatic Sensation

    Combined senses of touch, pain, and proprioception in the body.

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    Cortex Sensation Processing

    Different areas of the cortex process specific senses.

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    Olfaction

    Sense of smell through chemical receptor interaction.

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    Taste Receptors

    Cells that detect chemicals from food, leading to taste.

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    Flavour

    Combination of taste and smell in food perception.

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    Synesthesia

    A condition where senses intermingle, causing mixed experiences.

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    Limb Proprioception

    Awareness of body position and movement.

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    Cortical Space Allocation

    The amount of brain area dedicated to different senses.

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    Chemical Senses

    Taste and smell; detect chemical stimuli.

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    Pain Pathways

    Signal pathways for pain sensations, usually unmyelinated.

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    Myelinated vs Unmyelinated Axons

    Myelinated axons transmit signals faster than unmyelinated.

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    Brain Maps

    Spatial representation of body areas in the brain linked to sensory input.

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    Meditation and Gamma Waves

    Meditation by Tibetan monks increases gamma wave activity in the brain, particularly in frontal and parietal regions.

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    Synchronised Gamma Rhythms

    Gamma rhythms (30-80 Hz) help bind neural components into a single perception.

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    Yawning

    Yawning is linked to alertness and empathy, involving temperature regulation and 02 intake to cool the brain.

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    Dopamine and Serotonin

    Both neurotransmitters are boosted by yawning and depleted in migraines, affecting mood and pain perception.

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    Parasympathetic vs. Sympathetic

    Parasympathetic system controls 'rest and digest', while sympathetic system triggers 'fight or flight'.

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    Biological Clock

    An internal mechanism that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

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    Circadian Rhythm

    A repeating cycle of biological processes roughly every 24 hours.

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    Melatonin

    Hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep.

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    Zeitgeber

    An environmental cue, like light, that influences biological rhythms.

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    Jet Lag

    Disruption of the body's internal clock due to rapid travel across time zones.

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    Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

    Depression linked to seasonal changes, often due to lack of light.

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    Circannual Rhythm

    Biological cycles that occur annually, such as hibernation patterns.

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    Endogenous Rhythmicity

    The natural biological rhythm maintained without external cues.

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    Pineal Gland

    Gland that produces melatonin and regulates sleep-wake cycles.

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    Sound Waves

    Vibrations of air molecules causing changes in air pressure.

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    Frequency

    Rate at which air molecules vibrate, determining pitch.

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    Amplitude

    Number of vibrating air molecules that affects loudness.

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    Doppler Effect

    Change in frequency due to the relative motion of a sound source.

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    Outer Ear

    Part of the ear that collects and amplifies sound waves.

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    Inner Ear

    Part of the ear that converts mechanical vibrations into electrical signals.

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    Cochlea

    Fluid-filled structure in inner ear that transforms sound vibrations.

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    Basilar Membrane

    Membrane in cochlea that vibrates at different frequencies.

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    Auditory Receptor Cells

    Hair cells in cochlea that respond to sound vibrations.

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    Cocktail Party Effect

    Ability to focus on one sound among many.

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    Tone Mapping

    Different parts of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies.

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    Auditory Pathways

    Nerve pathways that transmit sound information to the brain.

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    Hearing Loss

    Loss of ability to hear due to damage to hair cells.

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    Audible Spectrum

    Range of frequencies humans can hear, from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

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    Wernicke’s area

    Brain region responsible for language comprehension, leading to nonsensical speech when damaged.

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    Broca’s area

    Brain region that controls language production, crucial for speaking fluently.

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    Aphasia

    Inability to understand or produce language due to brain damage.

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    Wernicke’s aphasia

    Aphasia characterized by the inability to produce meaningful language despite normal speech flow.

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    Broca’s aphasia

    Aphasia leading to difficulty in speech fluency while comprehension remains intact.

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    Lateralization of function

    The specialization of the left and right hemispheres for different tasks.

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    Stuttering

    Speech disorder characterized by involuntary repetitions or prolongations of sounds or syllables.

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    Right hemisphere role

    Contributes to emotional content in language and music processing.

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    Dyslexia

    A learning disorder manifesting as difficulties in reading and writing due to disrupted information flow.

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    Sex hormones

    Chemicals influencing sexual development and behavior, primarily androgens and estrogens.

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    Chromosomes

    Structures that organize genes into pairs, influencing hereditary traits.

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    Genotype

    The full set of genes present in an organism.

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    Phenotype

    The physical expression of the genotype influenced by environment and genetics.

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    Sexual dimorphism

    Differences in size or appearance between males and females within a species.

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    INAH3

    A brain region significantly larger in males than females, related to sexual activity.

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    Male Bird Song

    Complex vocalizations produced by male birds to attract mates.

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    Amygdala Function

    Part of the brain that links emotion with motivation, including sexual motivation.

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    Hypothalamus Role

    Regulates sexual behavior and instincts in the brain.

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    Frontal Lobe Damage Effects

    Damage can lead to increased sexual behavior or loss of sexual interest.

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    Eurotomania

    Condition where an individual believes another person is in love with them, often due to frontal lobe damage.

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    Oxytocin Release

    A hormone released during orgasm that promotes relaxation and pair bonding.

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    Dopamine in Sexual Reward

    Neurotransmitter enhancing feelings of pleasure and reward during sexual activity.

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    Sex Differences in Cognition

    On average, females excel in verbal reasoning; males in spatial tasks.

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    Pheromones

    Chemicals that influence behavior, often unconsciously detected by the olfactory system.

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    Asymmetrical Brain in Sexual Orientation

    Gay women have asymmetric brains like straight men, while gay men have symmetric brains like straight women.

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    SCN Size Differences

    The suprachiasmatic nucleus is larger in homosexual males than heterosexual males.

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    INAH3 Differences

    Interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus shows size differences linked to gender.

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    Sexual Motivation in Rats

    Rats with hypothalamus lesions show interest but fail to mate, while those with amygdala lesions show no interest.

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    Visual Cortex and Sexual Imagery

    Visual cortex involvement in dreaming or thinking about sexual activity involves multiple brain areas.

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    Lesion Effects on Behavior

    Brain lesions can alter sexual behavior, leading to disinhibition or disinterest.

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    James Lange Theory

    Emotions result from bodily changes; e.g., we feel afraid because our heart races.

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    Hypothalamus

    Brain region mediating emotional and bodily responses such as temperature and hunger.

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    Sham Rage

    A state of aggression in animals with cerebral cortex lesions but intact hypothalamus.

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    Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

    Part of the nervous system responsible for involuntary bodily functions like heart rate.

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    Non-REM Sleep

    A phase of sleep where the body experiences deep rest with low frequency brain waves.

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    REM Sleep

    A sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movement, increased brain activity, and vivid dreams.

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    EEG in Sleep

    An EEG shows brain wave patterns that vary between wakefulness, NREM, and REM sleep.

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    Spinal Cord Injury and Emotion

    Spinal damage can decrease emotional perception depending on injury severity.

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    Frontal Lobe Lesions

    Damage to frontal lobes affects personality and emotional responses.

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    Sleep Disorders

    Conditions affecting sleep quality, such as insomnia and sleep apnea.

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    Amygdala

    Brain structure involved in generating negative emotions.

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    Sleepwalking

    Complex behaviors, like walking or eating, occur during NREM sleep without full awareness.

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    Sleep Paralysis

    A phenomenon where a person is awake but cannot move, often during REM intrusion.

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    Serotonin

    A neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood, depression, and happiness.

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    Narcolepsy

    A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden sleep attacks.

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    Cataplexy

    Sudden loss of muscle tone triggered by strong emotions, associated with narcolepsy.

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    Cortical Lateralization

    Separation of emotional functions across the brain's hemispheres.

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    Nightmares

    Disturbing dreams that occur during NREM sleep.

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    Emotional Expressions

    Facial movements and body language that convey emotions, often culturally shared.

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    Frontal Lobotomy

    A surgical procedure that alters personality and emotional responses.

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    Dreaming

    A cognitive experience during REM sleep marked by high brain activity and vivid imagery.

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    Tantrums in Children

    Emotional outbursts in children due to undeveloped brain connections between frontal lobes and limbic system.

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    Biological Functions of Sleep

    Sleep serves functions like body restoration, memory consolidation, and energy conservation.

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    Sleep Deprivation

    Lack of sleep that can lead to cognitive impairment and health issues.

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    Memory Storage

    The process of retaining learned information, enhanced significantly by sleep.

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    Growth Hormone Levels

    Increase during deep sleep to aid in physical restoration.

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    Cerebellum's Role in Sleepwalking

    The cerebellum is active during sleepwalking, controlling automatic movement.

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    Anterior Hypothalamus

    Part of the brain that promotes sleep.

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    Posterior Hypothalamus

    Region that promotes wakefulness through the reticular activating system.

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    Reticular Activating System (RAS)

    A brainstem system that regulates wakefulness and alertness.

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    Coma

    State of unresponsiveness resulting from damage to the RAS.

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    ACh in REM Sleep

    Acetylcholine enhances critical REM sleep events.

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    Slow EEG Rhythms

    Rhythmic brain activity that blocks sensory information to the cortex.

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    Sleep Hormones

    Hormones that initiate sleep and decrease firing rates of neurons.

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    Muramyl Peptides

    Substances linked to sleep regulation, produced by gut bacteria.

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    Kluver-Bucy Syndrome

    Condition resulting from medial temporal lobe damage, leading to tame behavior.

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    Innate Fear Response

    Automatic emotional reaction to perceived threats.

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    Pavlovian Conditioning

    Learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a response.

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    Bilateral Amygdala Damage

    Condition impairs ability to recognize fear and anger in others.

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    Emotion Regulation

    Process of managing and responding to emotional experiences.

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    Interleukin-1

    Cytokine synthesized in glial cells linked to sleep regulation.

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    Neuronal Membrane

    A structure that separates intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid in neurons.

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    Ion Pumps

    Proteins that actively transport ions into and out of neurons, requiring energy.

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    Action Potential Propagation

    The process of the action potential traveling down the axon after generation.

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    Resting Potential

    The stable, negative charge of a neuron at rest, around -65mV.

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    Depolarization Phase

    The stage when sodium ions rush into the neuron, increasing its internal charge.

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    Repolarization Phase

    The process of restoring the negative internal charge after an action potential.

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    Ion Channel Types

    Different types of channels that regulate ion movement: resting, voltage-gated, ligand-gated, and mechanically gated.

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    Concentration Gradient

    The difference in ion concentration across the cell membrane that drives ion movement.

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    Neurotransmitter release

    When an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, neurotransmitters are released into the synapse.

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    Role of calcium in synapse

    Calcium ions trigger the release of neurotransmitters at the synapse upon action potential arrival.

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    Action potential generation

    When a neuron's membrane potential rises above threshold (-50mV), an action potential is generated at the axon hillock.

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    Nodes of Ranvier

    Gaps in the myelin sheath that facilitate saltatory conduction by allowing ion exchange.

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    Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

    Glial cells responsible for producing myelin in the CNS and PNS, respectively.

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    Equation of action potential phases

    The series of changes in a neuron's membrane potential: Resting -> Depolarization -> Repolarization -> Hyperpolarization -> Resting.

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    Seizures and epilepsy

    Conditions resulting from imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory signals, leading to excessive neuronal activity.

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    Neuro-transmitter synthesis

    Neurotransmitters are created in the cell body, packaged, and transported to the presynaptic terminal for release.

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    Aristotle's Heart Theory

    Believed the heart was the center of mind and emotions.

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    Descartes' Dualism

    Theory that mind and body are separate but interact.

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    Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

    Non-invasive method using magnetic fields to stimulate brain areas.

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    Cortico-Cortical Connections

    Interconnections between different brain regions.

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    Cellular Structure

    Brain is made of discrete nerve cells, not a continuous network.

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    Event Related Potentials (ERP)

    Measures brain response to specific stimuli or tasks.

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    Golgi's View

    Proposed brain is a network of interconnected tubes.

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    Santiago Ramón y Cajal

    Found that nerve cells are discrete entities, rejecting continuous views.

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    L-Dopa

    A drug that mimics dopamine's action, used to relieve symptoms of Parkinson's disease temporarily.

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    Primary auditory cortex

    Brain area where neurons respond to different frequencies of sound.

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    Myelinated Axons

    Axons covered with myelin that transmit signals faster than unmyelinated axons.

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    Photoreceptors

    Sensory receptors in the eyes that absorb light to initiate vision.

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    Proprioception

    The body's ability to sense its position and movement in space.

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    Unilateral Damage Effects

    Effects caused by damage to one side of the sensory processing system, leading to lateral symptoms.

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    Chemicals and Receptors in Taste

    Taste stimuli, or tastants, detected by specific receptors on the tongue leading to flavor perception.

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    Cerebral Cortex

    The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher brain functions.

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    Autonomic Nervous System

    Part of the nervous system controlling involuntary functions.

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    Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

    Fluid that cushions the brain, providing protection.

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    Neurons Arrangement

    The specific layout of nerve cells in different brain regions.

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    Lateralization of Language

    Shift of language processing to the left hemisphere by age 5.

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    Role of the Right Hemisphere

    Contributes to emotional comprehension and music processing.

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    Sexually Dimorphic Brain Structure

    Difference in brain regions based on sex; e.g., size of nuclei.

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    Androgens

    Male sex hormones, like testosterone; affect physical characteristics.

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    Estrogens

    Female sex hormones influencing development and characteristics.

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    Mullerian Inhibitory Hormone

    Prevents formation of female reproductive structures in males.

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    Auditory Receptor Neurons

    Cells next to the basilar membrane that convert sound into electrical signals.

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    Outer Hair Cells

    Hair cells in the cochlea that help tune sensitivity for hearing.

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    Inner Hair Cells

    Sensory receptors in the cochlea that detect sound frequencies.

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    Hearing Loss Causes

    Loss of hearing often due to damage to hair cells from loud sounds.

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    Sleep Cycle

    The alternating pattern of NREM and REM sleep stages during a night's sleep.

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    Insomnia

    A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep.

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    Cerebellum Function in Sleep

    Part of the brain that manages automatic movements during sleep, active in sleepwalking.

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    Growth Hormone Release

    Increased levels during NREM sleep which is crucial for growth and repair.

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    Restless Legs Syndrome

    A sleep disorder causing discomfort and an urge to move the legs during sleep.

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    Memory Consolidation

    The process of strengthening and storing new memories that occurs during sleep.

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    Sexual Motivation

    The drive to engage in mating behavior, influenced by the brain areas like the amygdala and hypothalamus.

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    Role of the Hypothalamus

    The hypothalamus is crucial for sexual behavior; its damage affects mating but not interest in females.

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    Frontal Lobe Impact

    Damage to the frontal lobe can lead to loss of inhibition in sexual behavior or reduced libido.

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    Sexual Reward Mechanism

    Sexual behavior provides rewards like dopamine and oxytocin, enhancing pleasure and bonding.

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    Differences in Cognitive Ability

    Women typically excel in verbal reasoning, while men are better at spatial tasks, likely due to evolutionary roles.

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    Pheromones' Role

    Pheromones are chemical signals affecting behavior, detected by the olfactory system and activating the hypothalamus.

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    Sexual Orientation and Brain Structure

    Differences in brain structure, particularly in areas like the SCN and INAH3, connect to sexual orientation.

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    Neural Correlates of Gender Differences

    The larger corpus callosum in women may allow better use of both brain hemispheres, impacting cognitive abilities.

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    Sex Differences in Mating Behaviors

    Males and females exhibit different strategies in mating due to evolutionary pressures; males often display competitive behaviors.

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    Sexual Behavior and Visual Imagery

    Sexual thinking involves areas like the visual cortex, showing complexity beyond just instinctual responses.

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    Influence of Oxytocin

    Oxytocin plays a major role in bonding and relaxation after orgasm, linking closely to reproductive success.

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    Effects of Brain Damage on Sexual Behavior

    Brain lesions can cause significant changes in sexual motivation and behavior, affecting how individuals react to potential mates.

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    Behavioral Effects of Hypothalamic Lesions

    Rats with hypothalamic lesions press for female access but do not copulate, indicating the role of this region in mating behavior.

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    Gamma Waves

    Brain waves (30-80 Hz) associated with cognitive processing and integration.

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    Action Potential Stages

    The five stages include stimulus, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, and return to resting potential.

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    Threshold Potential

    The critical level (-55mV) needed to trigger an action potential.

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    Myelination

    The process of axons being insulated with myelin, speeding up action potential conduction.

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    Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Potentials

    Excitatory Potentials (EPSP) increase likelihood of action potentials; Inhibitory Potentials (IPSP) decrease it.

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    Dopamine and Serotonin in Yawning

    Yawning increases dopamine and serotonin levels, helping mood and focus.

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    Influence of spinal injury

    Spinal cord injuries can reduce the perception of emotion.

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    Role of prefrontal cortex

    Involves reasoning and can inhibit emotional responses.

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    Dopamine and happiness

    Dopamine release contributes to feelings of pleasure and reward.

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    Depression and serotonin

    Depression is linked to low serotonin levels in the brain.

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    Phobias

    Intense fears linked to inadequate emotional processing.

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    Sleep-Wake Cycle

    The regular pattern of sleep and wakefulness regulated by the biological clock.

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    Adenosine

    A neuromodulator linked to sleep drive; its levels increase with wakefulness.

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    Fear Conditioning

    The process where neutral stimuli become associated with fear responses.

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    Emotional Response

    The physiological and psychological reaction to emotional stimuli.

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    Night Terrors

    Severe sleep disturbances typically occurring in non-REM sleep.

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    Study Notes

    Historical Views of the Brain

    • Aristotle proposed the heart as the center of the mind, contrasting it with the brain, which he considered emotionally neutral and insensitive to touch.
    • Descartes introduced dualism, separating mind and body with the pineal gland as the interaction point.
    • Gall developed phrenology, suggesting mental faculties are localized in specific brain areas, based on skull structure. This theory was later disproven.
    • Golgi argued against functional localization, highlighting the interconnected nature of the brain.
    • Cajal proposed nerve cells as discrete entities, opposing Golgi's network model.
    • Brodmann and Kleist contributed to functional mapping of the cerebral cortex, recognizing localized functions.
    • Wernicke and Broca identified specific language areas.
    • Bailey and von Bonin emphasized interconnectivity between brain regions.
    • Lavery's Electric phrenometer of 1907 was a device used for phrenology.

    Techniques for Studying the Brain

    • Cytoarchitecture: Examining cell structure and arrangement to unveil functions. Connectivity is both anatomical and functional.
    • Neuropsychology: Studying brain-damaged individuals (stroke, lesions) to correlate brain areas with specific functions. Phineas Gage's case is an example of neuropsychological study.
    • Imaging techniques (MRI, fMRI): MRI visualizes brain anatomy. fMRI reveals brain activity through blood flow changes. The subtraction method compares brain activity during different tasks. fMRI has good spatial but poor temporal resolution.
    • Listening techniques (EEG, ERP): EEG measures electrical brain activity. ERP records activity linked to specific events. EEG has good temporal but poor spatial resolution.
    • Stimulating techniques (TMS, direct brain stimulation): TMS uses magnetic pulses to stimulate brain regions to study areas and timing. Direct stimulation maps functional areas. TMS offers good spatial and temporal resolution.
    • Near Infra-Red Spectroscopy (nIRS): Shining near-infrared light through the scalp for real-time brain activity assessment. It's less invasive with good spatiotemporal resolution.
    • Single cell recording: Hubel & Wiesel's technique, used to study the responses of individual neurons to stimuli.

    Neuron and Action Potential

    • Neuronal membrane: Separates intracellular and extracellular fluid, harboring ion channels and pumps.
    • Resting membrane potential: Stable negative charge maintained at rest, primarily due to potassium ion movement out.
    • Action Potential: Rapid, all-or-nothing electrical signal initiated via stimulation above threshold at the axon hillock. Characterized by gated ion channel activities.
    • Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+): Ions driving depolarization (rise) and repolarization (fall) phases, respectively, via concentration and electrochemical gradients.
    • Sodium-Potassium pump: Maintains sodium and potassium concentration gradients, requiring energy.
    • Synapse: Junction where neurotransmitters transmit signals chemically.
    • Excitatory/Inhibitory neurotransmitters: Generate EPSPs/IPSPs, affecting action potential likelihood.
    • Neurotransmitter removal and inactivation: Prevents prolonged neural activation. Dysfunction can lead to conditions like stroke.
    • Ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors: Composed of binding site and ion channel parts. Neurotransmitter binding opens ion channels.
    • Metabotropic neurotransmitter receptors: Influence ion channels indirectly through secondary messengers (slower effect).
    • Excitatory/Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs/IPSPs): Neurotransmitters induce graded potentials (not all-or-nothing).
    • Synaptic integration: Spatial and temporal summation of EPSPs/IPSPs determine postsynaptic neuron's response. Different neurons use different neurotransmitters. Glutamate as major excitatory, GABA as major inhibitory neurotransmitters. Other neurotransmitters include dopamine, serotonin and acetylcholine.
    • Drugs that affect transmitter release (toxins): Examples include black widow spider venom and botulinum toxin.
    • Toxins that block neurotransmitter receptors (toxins): Include certain snake venoms.
    • Psychoactive drugs: Mimic neurotransmitters by binding to receptors.
    • Drugs that affect neurotransmitter uptake: Certain drugs prolong neurotransmitter activity.

    The Nervous System

    • Brain Regions: Cerebral cortex (4 lobes—occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal), basal ganglia, limbic system, brainstem (hindbrain, midbrain, diencephalon), spinal cord. Detailed description of the functions of each region provided.
    • Somatosensation: Five receptor types (Merkel’s, Meissner’s, Pacinian, Ruffini, nociceptors) sense different aspects of touch, pain, and temperature. Receptive fields influence sensitivity.
    • Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System: Separate autonomic branches with opposing effects (fight-or-flight, rest-and-digest), detailed description included of the neurotransmitters involved
    • Cranial/Spinal Nerves: Relay sensory and motor information with detailed descriptions. Damage can lead to dysfunction.

    The Senses

    • Vision: Processing information from eyes in occipital/temporal/parietal lobes.
    • Hearing: Conversion of sound waves into electrical signals in cochlea within inner ear, tonotopic organization. Auditory pathways process signals.
    • Smell (Olfaction): Sensory interaction with receptors in nasal cavity, processing in limbic system (emotional) and thalamus (perception).
    • Taste (Gustation): Chemical detection by tongue receptors to the solitary tract, integration with smell to create flavor.
    • Touch: Mechanoreceptors detect skin stimulation, transmitting to parietal lobe.

    Hearing (Audition)

    • Sound: Changes in air pressure due to vibrating molecules; frequency defines pitch, amplitude defines loudness.
    • Outer, Middle, and Inner Ear: Parts capturing, amplifying and converting sound to electrical signals.
    • Cochlea: Contains auditory receptor neurons (hair cells). Basilar membrane vibrations translate mechanical to electrical signals based on frequency.
    • Auditory Pathways: Signals travel from hair cells through brainstem, midbrain, thalamus to auditory cortex for processing. Sound localization involves interaural differences.
    • Language areas (Broca's and Wernicke's): Located in left hemisphere, crucial for language, with aphasias resulting from damage.
    • Speech development and stuttering: Complex interactions, potentially differing in activity patterns between left and right hemispheres.
    • Reading and writing: Involve visual cortex, motor cortex and language areas. Dyslexia can occur from disruptions in information flow between areas.

    Sex and the Brain

    • Sex hormones: Androgens (testosterone), estrogens (estradiol), progesterone influence brain development and behavior.
    • Sex differences: Some brain regions vary in size and structure between sexes.
    • Genetic influences: Mutations lead to ambiguous sexual phenotypes (e.g., Turner's syndrome, CAH, AIS).
    • Sexual behavior: Hypothalamus and amygdala play critical roles. Cognitive differences related to verbal/spatial reasoning are possibly linked to neural correlates and corpus callosum variations.
    • Pheromones: Olfactory detection, influence behavior through amygdala and hypothalamus.
    • Sexual Orientation: Hypotheses propose brain structural differences, including potential asymmetries in brain regions and the SCN.
    • Biological Sex and Gender Identity: Discussion of the relation of characteristics.

    Sleep-wake Cycle

    • Biological clock (SCN): Regulates sleep-wake cycle via melatonin secretion. Light is a key zeitgeber.
    • Sleep stages (NREM, REM): Characterized by different EEG patterns. Disorders (insomnia, sleep apnea, sleepwalking, narcolepsy) disrupt the cycle. Sleep functions include energy conservation, restoration, memory consolidation, and immune regulation.
    • Zeitgebers: Environmental cues that entrain biological rhythms, primarily light. Jet lag and seasonal affective disorder (SAD) are examples of disruptions.
    • Neural basis of the biological clock: Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) acts as a pacemaker, receiving direct input from retina. Melatonin is secreted by pineal gland during darkness.
    • Individual differences and age related changes: Variations in preferences, including morning/evening chronotypes, and phase shifts in adolescence.
    • Sleep deprivation: Cognitive consequences, increased NOS, potentially affecting health. Sleep and memory storage discussed.

    Emotion

    • Emotion: Involves subjective feelings, physiological changes, and behavioral responses.
    • Amygdala: Crucial for processing and learning emotional stimuli, notably fear. Lesions lead to loss of fear responses.
    • Hypothalamus: Generates physiological changes accompanying emotions (e.g., heart rate).
    • Prefrontal cortex: Influences and regulates emotional responses.
    • Cortical lateralization: Suggests hemispheric differences in positive/negative emotion processing.
    • Spinal injury and perceived emotion: Disconnection from brain reduces perceived emotion related to the location of the lesion.
    • Meditation and emotion control: Meditation techniques linked to synchronised gamma activity in frontal lobes may affect emotional regulation.
    • Yawning: Described as a possible self-regulating mechanism for emotional regulation and empathy.
    • Depression & Happiness: Mood disorders, potentially linked to serotonin levels and amygdala/prefrontal cortex interactions.
    • Expression of emotions: Facial expressions, inherited aspects.
    • Emotional control: Meditation linked to altered patterns in gamma waves in frontal regions.

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    This quiz explores the characteristics and functions of neurotransmitters, including ionotropic receptors, excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, and their roles in neurological conditions. Test your knowledge on neurotoxins, medications like L-Dopa, and neurotransmitter mechanisms.

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