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Questions and Answers
What is the role of tryptophan in serotonin production?
What is the role of tryptophan in serotonin production?
What impact does low serotonin have on cognitive performance?
What impact does low serotonin have on cognitive performance?
How do selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) function?
How do selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) function?
What percentage of SSRI studies have been reported as never published?
What percentage of SSRI studies have been reported as never published?
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What is a noted delay in the effects of SSRIs?
What is a noted delay in the effects of SSRIs?
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What is a notable feature of structural neuroimaging?
What is a notable feature of structural neuroimaging?
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Which of the following imaging techniques is NOT a method of functional brain imaging?
Which of the following imaging techniques is NOT a method of functional brain imaging?
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What is the primary purpose of an MRI machine in brain imaging?
What is the primary purpose of an MRI machine in brain imaging?
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Which one of these is a challenge in interpreting functional brain imaging data?
Which one of these is a challenge in interpreting functional brain imaging data?
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What does a PET scan primarily measure in the brain?
What does a PET scan primarily measure in the brain?
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What role does norepinephrine play during stressful events?
What role does norepinephrine play during stressful events?
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Which type of receptors do norepinephrine and epinephrine primarily act on?
Which type of receptors do norepinephrine and epinephrine primarily act on?
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What is the purpose of administering propranolol in therapy for PTSD?
What is the purpose of administering propranolol in therapy for PTSD?
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How does norepinephrine contribute to the phenomenon of flashbulb memories?
How does norepinephrine contribute to the phenomenon of flashbulb memories?
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Why is the use of propranolol in therapy for soldiers particularly controversial?
Why is the use of propranolol in therapy for soldiers particularly controversial?
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What was found regarding SSRIs and their effectiveness for mild to moderate depression?
What was found regarding SSRIs and their effectiveness for mild to moderate depression?
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What is a known effect of hallucinogens like LSD and psilocybin on mood?
What is a known effect of hallucinogens like LSD and psilocybin on mood?
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Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with wakefulness and attention?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with wakefulness and attention?
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What role do endocannabinoids play in synaptic transmission?
What role do endocannabinoids play in synaptic transmission?
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What is the primary function of adenosine in the body?
What is the primary function of adenosine in the body?
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Which characteristic distinguishes endogenous opioids from other neurotransmitters?
Which characteristic distinguishes endogenous opioids from other neurotransmitters?
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What differentiates structural neuroimaging from functional neuroimaging?
What differentiates structural neuroimaging from functional neuroimaging?
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What is a common effect of excess nicotine on the body?
What is a common effect of excess nicotine on the body?
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What is the primary limitation of an angiogram when assessing the brain?
What is the primary limitation of an angiogram when assessing the brain?
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Which imaging technique is specifically designed to overcome the limitations of traditional x-rays?
Which imaging technique is specifically designed to overcome the limitations of traditional x-rays?
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What is a significant advantage of MRI over x-ray imaging?
What is a significant advantage of MRI over x-ray imaging?
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Which of the following imaging techniques directly measures brain activity?
Which of the following imaging techniques directly measures brain activity?
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What is a key characteristic of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)?
What is a key characteristic of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)?
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What phenomenon does an increase in EEG amplitude typically indicate?
What phenomenon does an increase in EEG amplitude typically indicate?
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In which scenario would a CT scan be particularly beneficial?
In which scenario would a CT scan be particularly beneficial?
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What is one of the major downsides of using Positron emission tomography (PET)?
What is one of the major downsides of using Positron emission tomography (PET)?
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What is a major concern regarding metals during an MRI procedure?
What is a major concern regarding metals during an MRI procedure?
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Which imaging technique is capable of showing a detailed distinction between grey and white matter in the brain?
Which imaging technique is capable of showing a detailed distinction between grey and white matter in the brain?
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Study Notes
Voluntary Movement
- Motivation, learning, and arousal levels can all play a role in voluntary movement, influencing our behaviour and cognitive function
Norepinephrine (NE)
- NE is a neurotransmitter that originates in the locus coeruleus of the brainstem
- NE has widespread projections throughout the brain, influencing areas like the cortex and cerebellum
- NE has 2 main metabotropic receptor types with subtypes and sub-subtypes, which have modulatory effects
- NE and epinephrine act similarly on the same receptors
- NE facilitates wakefulness and arousal
- NE plays a key role in stress and emotional responses, enhancing memory formation.
- Elevated NE levels are associated with traumatic memories and PTSD.
- Propranolol, a beta blocker, can be used to reduce NE activity, potentially helping to treat PTSD.
Propranolol
- Propranolol is a beta-blocker which can be used to reduce stress arousal
- Propranolol can be used in therapeutic settings to help people re-experience traumatic events without the same intensity, reducing the impact of those memories
Serotonin
- Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that originates from the raphe nuclei in the brainstem
- Serotonin has widespread projections throughout the brain, including the cortex, thalamus, and cerebellum
- Serotonin has 15 different receptor types, with most being metabotropic
- Serotonin synthesis is dependent on the amino acid precursor tryptophan
- Serotonin depletion can lead to cognitive inflexibility, increased aggression, and poorer performance on tasks like the Stroop test
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
- SSRIs like Prozac are commonly used to treat depression, anxiety, and OCD
- SSRIs work by blocking the reuptake of serotonin from the synapse
- SSRIs can have a quick onset of action, but improvements in symptoms take several weeks
- Evidence suggests SSRIs may only be effective for a subset of patients, particularly those with severe depression
Hallucinogens
- Hallucinogens like LSD, DMT, and psilocybin are serotonin receptor agonists
- Hallucinogens cause radical changes in consciousness and perception, but have minimal effects on mood.
- Research suggests that psychedelics may have therapeutic potential for conditions like end-of-life care, PTSD, and addiction
Acetylcholine
- Acetylcholine is a small-molecule neurotransmitter
- Acetylcholine plays a critical role at the neuromuscular junction and in the basal forebrain, influencing wakefulness, attention, and other cognitive functions
- Nicotine is an acetylcholine agonist, which explains some of its stimulating effects
Endocannabinoids
- Endocannabinoids are small-molecule neurotransmitters
- Endocannabinoids are involved in retrograde transmission, traveling from the dendrite to the axon
- Endocannabinoids can weaken the connection between neurons at a synapse.
- THC is a cannabinoid agonist
Adenosine
- Adenosine is a byproduct of ATP, the cellular energy molecule
- Adenosine can act as a neurotransmitter, binding to metabotropic receptors that are generally inhibitory
- Accumulating adenosine levels may contribute to sleepiness.
- Caffeine is an adenosine antagonist, blocking adenosine receptors and preventing the build-up of sleepiness
Endogenous Opioids
- Endogenous opioids are peptide neurotransmitters that play a role in pain relief and pleasure
- They act through metabotropic GPCRs and primarily have inhibitory effects.
- These neurotransmitters are highly addictive and contribute to feelings of euphoria and increased baseline pleasure.
- Exogenous opioids, including heroin, morphine, and fentanyl, mimic the effects of endogenous opioids
- Naloxone is an opioid antagonist, used to counteract opioid overdose.
- Opioid receptors are found in various brain regions, including the spinal cord, periaqueductal grey area, and nucleus accumbens
Neuroimaging
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Structural Neuroimaging provides static images of the brain, allowing researchers to examine brain structure and anatomy, including:
- X-rays
- Computed Tomography (CT) scans
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans
- Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) scans
-
Functional Neuroimaging allows researchers to investigate brain activity and function, including:
- Electroencephalography (EEG)
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
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Description
This quiz explores the roles of norepinephrine in voluntary movement, arousal, and emotional responses. It also delves into the use of propranolol as a beta-blocker in therapeutic contexts, specifically for managing stress and PTSD. Test your knowledge of these critical concepts in neuroscience.