Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators

Study Notes

Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, but not the only one.
Glutamate release increases the likelihood of the post-synaptic neuron firing, not the pre-synaptic neuron.
As more glutamate is released, the synaptic connection is strengthened.

Neuromodulators influence the activity of other neurotransmitters.
Dopamine and serotonin are examples of neuromodulators.
Neuromodulators exert their influence over a longer time period than neurotransmitters.
Neuromodulators do not release their chemical message into a single synapse, instead, they diffuse into the surrounding tissue.

The plasma membrane is semi-permeable, separating the cell from its environment and regulating what enters and leaves the cell.
Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance inside the cell membrane where metabolic reactions occur, providing a medium for chemical reactions.
The nucleus is the control center of the cell, storing DNA and regulating gene expression.
Mitochondria generate energy for the cell through cellular respiration, producing ATP.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranous tubules and cisternae involved in protein synthesis and transport.
Ribosomes are small organelles found throughout the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs.
Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs containing digestive enzymes that break down and recycle cellular waste.

Metabolism is the conversion of energy and nutrients into cellular components and waste products, maintaining cellular homeostasis.
Cell division is the process by which a cell becomes two daughter cells, involving mitosis and cytokinesis.
Mitosis is the division of the nucleus in somatic cells, while meiosis is the division of the nucleus in reproductive cells.
Cell signaling is communication between cells through signaling molecules, regulating cellular behavior.
Cell transport is the movement of molecules into and out of the cell, involving passive and active transport mechanisms.

Interphase is the period of cell growth and preparation for cell division, involving G1 and G2 phases.
Mitosis is the division of the nucleus, separating duplicated chromosomes.
Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm, separating the cell into two daughter cells.
G1 and G2 checkpoints regulate the cell cycle, ensuring proper DNA replication and cell growth.

Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus, characteristic of bacteria.
Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus, characteristic of plants, animals, and fungi.
Stem cells can differentiate into various cell types, possessing pluripotency.
Specialized cells have unique structures and functions, such as nerve cells and muscle cells.