Questions and Answers
The frontal cortex is located ____ with respect to the parietal cortex.
anterior
The temporal cortex is located ____ with respect to the frontal cortex.
inferior
What are the main stages of nervous system development? Name and briefly describe them.
Neurogenesis, Cell migration, Differentiation, Synaptogenesis, Apoptosis, Rearrangement.
What will happen if an axon of a newly developed neuron is unable to find a vacant postsynaptic cell?
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The ____ is contained in the myelencephalon.
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Taking notes in class is regulated by which subdivision of the peripheral nervous system?
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Salivation, secretion of digestive juices, and blood flow to the GI tract are governed by the ____ nervous system.
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Describe the function of the primary cortical areas.
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Describe the functions of the association areas.
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Oligodendrocytes are found in the ____ nervous system and, like Schwann cells, are important for the production of myelin.
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During a resting potential, the force of ____ pushes potassium ions (K+) to the outside of the cell membrane.
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Action potentials get re-generated at each _____ and this jumping from node to node of the action potential is called ____.
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Mitochondria produce a chemical called ____, which can be used as an energy source.
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If sodium (Na+) is pushed inside the cell by both diffusion and electrostatic pressure, why is it found in greatest concentration outside of the cell?
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A ______ removes any extra neurotransmitters from the synapse by taking them back into the presynaptic neuron for eventual repackaging into vesicles.
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If the inner voltage of a cell is -70mV and the application of stimulation results in a -95mV charge, the stimulation had a ____ effect. On the other hand, a resultant charge of +40mV would be a _____ effect.
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What is an autoreceptor, where is it located, and what happens when it is blocked?
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Explain how catecholamines are synthesized.
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Name the four stages of pharmacokinetics.
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Monica participates in an experiment where she is given a capsule filled with an inert powder and told that this powder is a powerful analgesic. She then undergoes a cold pressor test. What is her pain sensitivity likely to be on the second test compared to the first test?
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There are two main reasons for differences in the effectiveness of drugs that produce similar effects. One is the site of the drug's action, and the other is ____.
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The ____ dopamine pathway projects from the ventral tegmental area to the limbic system.
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Neurons that release amino acid neurotransmitters are located throughout the brain. Neurons that release other types of neurotransmitters are organized in _____?
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To which receptor does alcohol bind?
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Which monoamine has the most receptors?
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What is the difference between drug tolerance and drug sensitization?
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Describe one mechanism whereby a drug can produce an agonist effect on neurotransmission.
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Describe one mechanism whereby a drug can produce an antagonist effect on neurotransmission.
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Study Notes
Nervous System Structures and Functions
- The frontal cortex is located anteriorly to the parietal cortex.
- The temporal cortex is located inferiorly to the frontal cortex.
- The peripheral nervous system lacks the arachnoid membrane and the subarachnoid space in its meninges.
Development of the Nervous System
- Neurogenesis: Progenitor cells divide to produce neurons through symmetrical and asymmetrical division.
- Cell migration: Neurons utilize radial glial cells for movement to designated locations.
- Differentiation: Chemical signals guide neurons to develop into specific types (e.g., sensory, motor, interneurons).
- Synaptogenesis: Formation of synaptic connections between neurons.
- Apoptosis: Pruning occurs with massive cell death.
- Rearrangement: Strengthening of active synapses and elimination of inactive ones.
Neuron Function and Maintenance
- Approximately 50% of newly developed neurons die by apoptosis if their axon does not connect with a suitable postsynaptic cell.
- The medulla is housed within the myelencephalon.
- The somatic nervous system controls activities like note-taking in class.
- The enteric nervous system regulates functions such as salivation and digestion.
Primary and Association Cortical Areas
- Primary cortical areas include:
- V1: Processes visual inputs.
- A1: Analyzes sound elements receiving input from MGN.
- S1: Processes somatosensory information.
- Motor cortex: Responsible for motor control.
- Olfactory area: Receives olfactory information.
- Gustatory area: Processes taste information from insula.
Central Nervous System Components
- Oligodendrocytes, found in the central nervous system, produce myelin similar to Schwann cells.
- Resting potential is maintained as diffusion drives potassium ions (K+) outside the membrane.
Action Potentials and Neurotransmitter Dynamics
- Action potentials rejuvenate at each node of Ranvier via saltatory conduction.
- Mitochondria generate ATP, serving as an energy source for cells.
- Sodium (Na+) concentration is higher outside the cell due to the sodium-potassium pump despite diffusion and electrostatic pressure pushing it inward.
Neurotransmitter Regulation
- A transporter protein reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters from the synapse back into the presynaptic neuron.
- Hyperpolarizing stimulus shifts the voltage from -70mV to -95mV, while a depolarizing effect results in a +40mV charge.
Autoreceptors and Catecholamines
- Autoreceptors are proteins that moderate neurotransmitter release, located in the presynaptic terminal, cell body, and dendrites. Blockage results in unregulated neurotransmitter release.
- Catecholamines are synthesized from phenylalanine through several enzymatic steps: phenylalanine → tyrosine → L-DOPA → dopamine → norepinephrine → epinephrine.
Pharmacokinetics
- The four stages of pharmacokinetics include absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion.
Placebo and Drug Responses
- The placebo effect observed in Monica's experiment resulted in low pain sensitivity initially. Naloxone, an opioid antagonist, likely heightened pain sensitivity in subsequent tests.
- Differences in drug effectiveness can stem from the drug's action site and its affinity for that site.
Pathways and Receptors
- Mesolimbic dopamine pathway connects from the ventral tegmental area to the limbic system.
- Neurons releasing amino acid neurotransmitters are dispersed throughout the brain, whereas other neurotransmitter types are organized in pathways.
- Alcohol binds primarily to GABA receptors.
- Serotonin has the highest number of receptors (13).
Drug Tolerance and Sensitization
- Drug tolerance leads to reduced effects after repeated use, while drug sensitization results in amplified effects from repeated administration.
- Drugs can exert agonist effects by stimulating postsynaptic receptors, while antagonist effects can stem from activating autoreceptors, inhibiting neurotransmitter synthesis and release.
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Test your knowledge on the structure of the brain and nervous system with these flashcards from Unit 1. Explore terms related to the location of various cortices and the meninges in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. Perfect for students studying neuroscience!