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Questions and Answers
Dysbindin is involved in the regulation of the activity of the vesicular transporter for serotonin.
Dysbindin is involved in the regulation of the activity of the vesicular transporter for serotonin.
False (B)
Neuregulin plays a significant role in the genesis of neurons by glial cells.
Neuregulin plays a significant role in the genesis of neurons by glial cells.
True (A)
The risk of schizophrenia in monozygotic twins is higher than in dizygotic twins.
The risk of schizophrenia in monozygotic twins is higher than in dizygotic twins.
True (A)
Structural abnormalities in the brain are a confirmed cause of schizophrenia.
Structural abnormalities in the brain are a confirmed cause of schizophrenia.
Adverse events during pregnancy can create a vulnerability to develop schizophrenia later in life.
Adverse events during pregnancy can create a vulnerability to develop schizophrenia later in life.
Large cerebral ventricles are a sign of high cell volume in the brain.
Large cerebral ventricles are a sign of high cell volume in the brain.
Drugs such as marijuana are believed to contribute to the manifestation of schizophrenia in individuals with a predisposition.
Drugs such as marijuana are believed to contribute to the manifestation of schizophrenia in individuals with a predisposition.
Adopted children with a biological parent suffering from schizophrenia have a low risk of developing the disorder.
Adopted children with a biological parent suffering from schizophrenia have a low risk of developing the disorder.
Hypoactive NMDA receptors on cortical GABA interneurons lead to overactivation of the cortical brainstem pathway to the VTA.
Hypoactive NMDA receptors on cortical GABA interneurons lead to overactivation of the cortical brainstem pathway to the VTA.
Glutamate has an inhibitory effect on dopamine release in the mesocortical pathway.
Glutamate has an inhibitory effect on dopamine release in the mesocortical pathway.
The cortical brainstem glutamate projection regulates dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex.
The cortical brainstem glutamate projection regulates dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex.
An increase in glutamate activity results in reduced dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex.
An increase in glutamate activity results in reduced dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex.
The thalamus processes too much sensory information due to the overactivity of glutamate hypofunction.
The thalamus processes too much sensory information due to the overactivity of glutamate hypofunction.
5-HT2A and NMDA receptors interact, and hallucinogens can affect this interaction.
5-HT2A and NMDA receptors interact, and hallucinogens can affect this interaction.
Clozapine is an example of a serotonin inverse agonist that targets 5-HT2C receptors.
Clozapine is an example of a serotonin inverse agonist that targets 5-HT2C receptors.
Excessive release of glutamate in the VTA is connected with the stimulation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway.
Excessive release of glutamate in the VTA is connected with the stimulation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway.
A delusion is an effective tool used to strengthen the ego.
A delusion is an effective tool used to strengthen the ego.
The outer ego boundary helps distinguish between mental phenomena and real phenomena.
The outer ego boundary helps distinguish between mental phenomena and real phenomena.
Attenuation of the inner ego boundary leads to de-repression of archaic ego states.
Attenuation of the inner ego boundary leads to de-repression of archaic ego states.
Children in a double bind experience consistent messages from their parents.
Children in a double bind experience consistent messages from their parents.
Narcissism is a primary state that indicates the ego's ability to organize behavior.
Narcissism is a primary state that indicates the ego's ability to organize behavior.
Schisms in families can lead to unhealthy dynamics between parents and children.
Schisms in families can lead to unhealthy dynamics between parents and children.
Hallucinations are a result of intact outer ego boundaries.
Hallucinations are a result of intact outer ego boundaries.
The id remains in control when a person is unable to distinguish between their fantasies and reality.
The id remains in control when a person is unable to distinguish between their fantasies and reality.
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations and delusions.
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations and delusions.
Negative symptoms of schizophrenia enhance a person's emotional responses.
Negative symptoms of schizophrenia enhance a person's emotional responses.
Avolition refers to an increased desire for engaging in goal-directed behavior.
Avolition refers to an increased desire for engaging in goal-directed behavior.
Cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia can cause difficulties in problem-solving and decision-making.
Cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia can cause difficulties in problem-solving and decision-making.
Affective flattening is a positive symptom of schizophrenia.
Affective flattening is a positive symptom of schizophrenia.
Disorganized behavior is a positive symptom of schizophrenia.
Disorganized behavior is a positive symptom of schizophrenia.
Anhedonia refers to a heightened ability to experience pleasure.
Anhedonia refers to a heightened ability to experience pleasure.
Delusions are a type of negative symptom associated with schizophrenia.
Delusions are a type of negative symptom associated with schizophrenia.
5-HT2A receptors play a role in modulating the release of dopamine, norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine.
5-HT2A receptors play a role in modulating the release of dopamine, norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine.
Atypical antipsychotic drugs are primarily 5-HT2A agonists.
Atypical antipsychotic drugs are primarily 5-HT2A agonists.
The hallucinations caused by LSD and mescaline can be attributed to 5-HT2C receptor stimulation.
The hallucinations caused by LSD and mescaline can be attributed to 5-HT2C receptor stimulation.
Freud's conflict model suggests that early childhood experiences can lead to inner turmoil in individuals.
Freud's conflict model suggests that early childhood experiences can lead to inner turmoil in individuals.
Schizophrenia is linked to the final stages of psychosexual development according to Freud's model.
Schizophrenia is linked to the final stages of psychosexual development according to Freud's model.
The ego's role is to mediate between the id's impulses and the superego's demands.
The ego's role is to mediate between the id's impulses and the superego's demands.
Deficits model suggests that schizophrenia arises due to a lack of control by the superego.
Deficits model suggests that schizophrenia arises due to a lack of control by the superego.
Primary narcissism is associated with the ego being fully developed.
Primary narcissism is associated with the ego being fully developed.
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Study Notes
Key Molecular Players in Schizophrenia
- Dysbindin plays a role in synaptic structure formation and regulates glutamate vesicular transport.
- Neuregulin is crucial for neuronal migration, glial cell genesis, and myelination by glia.
- DISC1 (disrupted in schizophrenia 1) promotes neurogenesis, neuronal migration, and dendritic organization; linked to schizophrenia.
Heritability and Family Studies
- Increased risk of schizophrenia in family members of affected individuals.
- Monozygotic twins have a 48% risk, while dizygotic twins have a 17% risk.
- Adoption studies show high risk in adopted children if biological parents have schizophrenia.
Structural Abnormalities in the Brain
- Brain scans reveal reduced cell volume in basal ganglia, temporal lobe, and hippocampus.
- Enlarged cerebral ventricles indicate low cell volume.
- Disorganization of cell structure observed in the hippocampus; causality remains uncertain.
Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis
- Adverse in utero events disrupt normal brain development, increasing vulnerability.
- Postnatal factors like low socioeconomic status and drug use (e.g., marijuana) may contribute to schizophrenia onset.
Glutamate Hypofunction Hypothesis
- NMDA receptor hypoactivity leads to overactivation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, causing excess glutamate release.
- Glutamate acts as a dopamine accelerator in the mesocortical pathway.
- Abnormal glutamate levels in thalamic pathways affect sensory processing, leading to sensory overload.
Serotonin Hypothesis
- 5-HT2A inverse agonists (e.g., clozapine, asenapine) impact the stability of NMDA receptor complexes.
- Activation of 5-HT2A receptors can modulate dopamine, norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine release.
- Hallucinogens affect receptor stability and may produce hallucinatory experiences.
Psychoanalytic Perspectives
- Freud's conflict model implicates harsh childhood experiences leading to inner turmoil and conflicts among id, ego, and superego.
- Deficits model connects schizophrenia with ego disintegration; delusions serve as coping mechanisms for the ego's fragmentation.
Family Dynamics and Schizophrenia
- Double bind theory suggests conflicting parental messages cause children to withdraw into psychosis.
- Schizoid family structures can exacerbate risk of schizophrenia; proximity between a parent and child may lead to disturbances.
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
- Positive Symptoms involve excess behaviors: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and behavior.
- Negative Symptoms reflect losses in emotional response and thought processes, summarized as the "5 As":
- Alogia: restricted thought and speech fluency.
- Affective blunting: diminished emotional expression.
- Asociality: reduced social interaction.
- Anhedonia: lower pleasure capacity.
- Avolition: decreased motivation for goal-directed behavior.
Cognitive Symptoms
- Impaired planning, decision-making, and sustained attention.
- Difficulty modulating behavior based on social cues and problems with verbal fluency.
- Challenges in problem-solving, slow disorganized thinking, and comprehension.
- Poor concentration and memory issues may emerge as prominent features.
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