Neuroscience Quiz on Brain Structure
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Questions and Answers

What structure did the early vertebrate 'brain' begin as?

  • A neural network
  • A series of bulges
  • A simple tube (correct)
  • A cerebral hemisphere

    • The anterior commissure is a group of nerve tracts connecting a series of regions in the brain.

    False (B)

    What does the visual cortex send signals back to for further integration?

    thalamus

    The cortex is organized into a stack of distinct _______ that span its thickness.

    <p>layers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the brain components with their correct description:

    <p>Anterior commissure = Transmits signals between left and right temporal lobes. Neural network = Group of nerve tracts connecting brain regions. Column = Neurons form a single chain within the cortex. Cortex = Brain structure with layered organization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the visual cortex sending signals back to the thalamus?

    <p>Integration with other sensory information (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The layers in the cortex are arranged in horizontal columns.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happened in early vertebrates as neurons were added to the nerve cord?

    <p>Three distinct bulges developed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the visual cortex?

    <p>To detect edges of objects and integrate signals from each eye (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reflex loops involve the cerebral cortex before eliciting action.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the range of frequencies for beta waves?

    <p>14 to 30 Hz</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In early mammals, cortical tissues in the cerebrum and the _________ were developed.

    <p>cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the brain area and its function:

    <p>Visual cortex = Detects edges of objects and integrates signals from each eye Cerebral hemispheres = Formed from the expansion of the forebrain Medulla = Relays signals between the brain &amp; spinal cord Spinal cord = Involved in reflexive actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical ratio of excitatory to inhibitory neurons in most brain areas?

    <p>4:1 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The strength of signals from neighboring circuits cannot shift a neuron's response dynamically

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What brain regions produce beta waves?

    <p>frontal and parietal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the defining characteristic of a pyramidal cell?

    <p>Cone-shaped cell body (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pyramidal cells have one set of dendrites.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of neuroglia?

    <p>Regulate ion concentrations, provide nutrients, regulate formation of new connections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The main 'immune cells' of the brain are the ______.

    <p>microglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms related to the passage:

    <p>Pyramidal cell = Cone-shaped cell body Neuroglia = Regulates ion concentrations Microglia = Immune cells of the brain Synaptic Vesicles = Packages of neurotransmitter molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes calcium ions to flow into the cell during neurotransmission?

    <p>Membrane potential reaching threshold (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neurotransmitters are released from the dendrites.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the function of dendrites?

    <p>Receiving signals from other neurons (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Excitatory neurons typically loop their responses back to earlier segments of a circuit.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when calcium ions bind to the synaptic vesicles?

    <p>The vesicles fuse with the axon terminal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the chemical messengers released by axon terminals called?

    <p>neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The fatty sheath surrounding some axons is called ______.

    <p>myelin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following neuron components with their functions:

    <p>Cell body = Contains the nucleus and molecular machinery Axon = Sends signals to other neurons Axon terminals = Releases chemical messengers Dendrites = Receives signals from other neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of oligodendrocytes in the nervous system?

    <p>To form the myelin sheath around axons (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ion channels are responsible for transporting neurotransmitters across the neuronal membrane.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the junctions where neurons communicate?

    <p>synapses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are hair cells positioned?

    <p>Along the basilar membrane (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Each hair cell responds equally to all sound frequencies.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What affects the range of sound frequencies a hair cell responds to?

    <p>location along the cochlea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Taste depends on molecules set free when we ______.

    <p>chew or drink</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following structures with their function:

    <p>Hair cells = Respond to different sound frequencies Olfactory bulbs = Receive signals from sensory neurons in the nasal cavity Basilar membrane = Location of hair cells Sensory neurons = Detect molecules in the nasal cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the sensory neurons for smell located?

    <p>In the mucus membrane inside the nasal cavity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The taste sense can distinguish a wide spectrum of flavors.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure do the axons of sensory neurons pass through before entering the olfactory bulbs?

    <p>tiny holes in the skull</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following taste qualities is NOT one of the five basic tastes?

    <p>Savory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The brainstem and thalamus use information from both ears to compute a sound’s direction and location.

    <p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the sensory cells that are receptive to smells called?

    <p>Olfactory cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The tips of olfactory cells are equipped with several hair-like ______ that are receptive to different odors.

    <p>cilia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which combination of tastes is mentioned in relation to enhancing sweetness?

    <p>Strawberries and peanut butter (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their correct descriptions:

    <p>Umami = Savory taste Olfactory cells = Smell receptors Basic taste qualities = Five fundamental tastes Cilia = Hair-like structures on olfactory cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All tastes are detected across the tongue.

    <p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one way the combination of tastes can influence perception, as mentioned.

    <p>Sugar tastes sweeter when combined with certain smells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Neural Network

    A group of interconnected nerve cells that work together to perform specific functions in the brain.

    Corpus Callosum

    A structure in the brain that transmits signals between the left and right hemispheres, enabling coordination between the two sides.

    Anterior Commissure

    A smaller structure in the brain that transmits signals between the left and right temporal lobes.

    Cerebral Cortex

    The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as planning, language, and memory.

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    Brain Waves

    The pattern of electrical activity in the brain, measured as waves.

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    Cortical Column

    A functional unit in the cerebral cortex that consists of columns of neurons stacked on top of each other.

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    Neural Pathways

    A system of nerve tracts connecting different regions of the brain.

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    Sensory Integration

    The process by which the brain integrates information from different sensory modalities.

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    Excitatory neurons

    Neurons that increase the likelihood of another neuron firing.

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    Inhibitory neurons

    Neurons that decrease the likelihood of another neuron firing.

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    Excitatory-Inhibitory Balance

    The balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurons in the brain.

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    Hyperpolarization

    The process of becoming more negative in charge, making it less likely to fire.

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    Beta Waves

    A rapid, rhythmic pattern of brain activity, typically associated with alertness and cognitive processing.

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    Synaptic Plasticity

    The ability of neural circuits to change their strength and response based on experience.

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    Visual Cortex

    The part of the brain responsible for processing visual information.

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    Reflex Loop

    The ability of the body to react quickly to stimuli.

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    Neurons

    Specialized cells in the brain that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.

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    Axon

    The long, slender projection of a neuron that carries electrical signals away from the cell body.

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    Synapse

    The junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another neuron, where signals are transmitted.

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    Neurotransmitters

    Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse.

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    Soma

    The cone-shaped cell body of a neuron, containing the nucleus.

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    Dendrites

    Branching extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

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    Neurotransmission

    The process by which neurons communicate with each other by transmitting signals across synapses.

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    Astrocytes

    A type of glial cell responsible for maintaining the health of neurons, providing nutrients and support.

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    Cell body

    The main part of a neuron containing the nucleus and other essential cell components.

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    Axon terminals

    Specialized junctions at the end of axons where chemical messengers are released.

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    Feedback inhibition

    A mechanism where neurons send signals back to earlier segments of a circuit, controlling their activity.

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    Sound localization

    The ability to determine the direction and location of a sound using information from both ears.

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    Auditory pathway

    The pathway of information processing for sound, starting from the ears and reaching the brain.

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    Brainstem and thalamus in sound localization

    The brainstem and thalamus work together to take information from both ears and calculate the direction and location of a sound.

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    Basic taste qualities

    The five basic taste qualities that humans can perceive: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.

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    Umami

    The taste sensation that describes savory or meaty flavors.

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    Olfactory sensitivity

    The ability to identify a large number of different smells.

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    Taste and smell interaction

    A combination of taste and smell creates a more complex flavor experience, enhancing taste perception.

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    Olfactory cilia

    The olfactory receptors located at the tips of olfactory cells, allowing the detection of odors.

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    Hair Cells in Cochlea

    Hair cells located on the basilar membrane in the cochlea, each sensitive to a specific range of sound frequencies.

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    Basilar Membrane

    The basilar membrane is a structure within the cochlea that vibrates in response to sound waves. Different areas of the membrane vibrate at different frequencies, enabling the brain to distinguish between high and low tones.

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    Sound Frequency Detection

    The process by which the brain interprets sound waves as specific pitches and volumes.

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    Olfactory Sensory Neurons

    The sensory neurons in the nasal cavity that detect odor molecules.

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    Olfactory Bulbs

    The area in the brain that processes information about smells.

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    Taste and Molecules

    Our ability to taste food depends on molecules released when we chew, which are then detected by taste receptors on our tongue.

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    Basic Tastes

    The five basic tastes that humans can perceive: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.

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    Taste vs. Smell in Flavor

    The sense of taste is limited to detecting the five basic tastes, while the sense of smell provides a richer and more complex experience of flavor.

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    Study Notes

    Brain Basics

    • The brain is the nerve center of the body, containing billions of neurons that transmit information and program responses.
    • The brain can perform multiple tasks simultaneously thanks to specialized regions for specific tasks and abilities.
    • The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, divided into two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum.
    • Each hemisphere contains lobes: frontal (coordinating voluntary movements and higher cognitive skills), parietal (integrating sensory signals), occipital (processing visual information), and temporal (visual and auditory processing).
    • The hippocampus (memory encoding) and amygdala (integrating memory and emotion) are part of the limbic system which regulates emotions and motivation.
    • The thalamus integrates sensory information and relays it to other brain parts, while the hypothalamus controls hormonal signals through the pituitary gland.
    • The midbrain coordinates eye movements, reflexes, and fine motor control; the hindbrain plays a role in movement, glucose regulation, sleep, and posture.

    Brain Evolution

    • The complex human brain evolved from a simple tube-like structure in early vertebrates.
    • Early vertebrate brains had specialized regions for processing sensory and motor information.
    • As vertebrates evolved, processing expanded in sensory and motor areas; the olfactory bulbs and visual regions expanded.
    • The cerebellum expanded to control movement and spatial orientation, which became more important with increased vertebrate activity.
    • In early mammals, the cerebrum and cerebellum expanded even further, increasing processing power through layers and folds.

    Neural Networks and Circuits

    • Information travels between brain regions through chains of neurons called nerve tracts (e.g., corpus callosum).
    • Neural networks route signals through the brain for analysis and organization.
    • Neural circuits interconnect neurons; they transform input signals into output patterns to encode complex information.
    • Neurons are organized in distinct layers that span the thickness of the cortex (like shelves in a bookcase).
    • Each column in the cortex is dedicated to a specific processing task, but neighboring circuits influence neural activity.

    Excitatory and Inhibitory Neurons

    • Neurons are either excitatory or inhibitory.
    • Most brain neurons (about 80%) are excitatory, pushing neighbors towards firing (e.g., pyramidal cells).
    • Inhibitory neurons (about 20%) suppress the activity of neighboring neurons and regulate circuit activity.
    • Neuronal organization in circuits is crucial for learning and refining signals to the body and other brain parts.

    Neurons and Glia

    • Neurons transmit electrical signals between nerve cells, muscles, or glands; they consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.
    • Glial cells (astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes) support and regulate neuronal function.
    • Ion channels allow ions to cross a neuron's membrane, changing the voltage across the membrane.
    • Synapses are the junctions between neurons where neurotransmitters (chemical signals) are released.

    Receptors and Molecular Signaling

    • Neurotransmitters fit into specific receptors on postsynaptic membranes; they are either ionotropic or metabotropic.
    • Receptors and channels can be modified by hormones, neuromodulators (e.g., endocannabinoids), and prostaglandins (affecting pain sensitivity).
    • Some molecules diffuse through cell membranes (e.g., steroids); their receptors are inside the soma.
    • Genes, gene expression, and changes in chromatin influence neuron function and structure.
    • Genetic variants or alleles affect protein function and can cause neurological conditions (e.g., Tay-Sachs disease).

    Senses and Perception

    • Sensory organs translate energy and molecules into electrical signals (transduction).
    • The visual system, involving 30% of the cerebral cortex, translates light into electrical signals.
    • The retina's photoreceptors (rods and cones) convert light into electrical signals.
    • Rods detect low light; cones detect fine detail and color.
    • Input from two eyes enables depth perception, and the retina preserves visual information.
    • The brain processes visual information in parallel streams for object recognition and spatial location.

    Senses and Perception (Continued): Hearing

    • The auditory system processes sound waves; converting them into electrical signals via hair cells.
    • The basilar membrane vibrates to different frequencies (pitches) along the cochlea.
    • Hair cells convert physical movement to electrical signals, which travel to the auditory cortex via the auditory nerve.

    Senses and Perception (Continued): Taste and Smell

    • Taste and smell receptors are exposed to the outside environment and vulnerable to damage.
    • Taste receptors (taste buds) detect sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savory) tastes.
    • Smell receptors in the nasal cavity detect odor molecules and send signals directly to the olfactory cortex.
    • Taste and smell information converge to create the perception of flavor.

    Touch and Pain

    • The somatosensory system detects touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, texture, itch, and pain.
    • Touch receptors are located in different skin layers.
    • Pain is a sensory and emotional experience; warning of potential damage.
    • Nociceptors respond to stimuli that cause tissue damage.
    • Pain messages travel up the spinal cord through the brainstem and thalamus to the somatosensory cortex.
    • Pain management can involve the brain's periaqueductal gray matter and the release of endorphins.

    Movement

    • The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) controls coordinated muscle actions for movement.
    • Muscles attach to the skeleton at joints.
    • Flexors and extensors work in opposition.
    • Motor units consist of alpha motor neurons and associated muscle fibers.
    • Reflexes are involuntary, automatic muscle responses to stimuli.
    • Specialized receptors in the muscles and tendons provide feedback to the brain, guiding the movement.

    Learning, Memory, and Emotions

    • The medial temporal lobe (hippocampus and parahippocampal regions) converts memories to long-term declarative memory.
    • Declarative memories include semantic (general knowledge) and episodic (personal experiences).
    • Nondeclarative memory governs learned motor skills.
    • Memory formation involves synaptic plasticity, characterized by structural changes at synapses (LTP/LTD).
    • The amygdala is a key region for processing emotions, especially fear and emotional associations with rewards.

    Thinking, Planning, and Language

    • The brain filters information, interprets perceptions, and builds representations.
    • Semantic memory plays a role in interpreting perceptions by linking them to past experiences.
    • Specific cortical networks process different categories of information.
    • "Concept cells” work together to form semantic representations of objects, actions, and social information.
    • Damage to parts of the temporal lobes affects object recognition.

    Infant, Child, and Adolescent Brain

    • The infant brain continues rapid development after birth (1% daily increase initially).
    • Synaptic pruning allows weaker connections to weaken while stronger connections grow and solidify.
    • The brain is highly plastic, adapting to experiences throughout life.
    • Adolescence is marked by further maturation in the frontal lobes, increasing cognitive control abilities.

    Adult and Aging Brain

    • The adult brain continues to develop and change throughout life, showing a decline in some areas like gray matter density and white matter growth.
    • Cognitive functions like memory, attention, and problem-solving sometimes decline with age.
    • The prefrontal cortex's maturation is associated with increased cognitive control, delaying emotional and impulsive responses.
    • The aging brain undergoes changes in various brain areas, including neuronal structures and chemical composition.

    Psychiatric Disorders

    • Psychiatric disorders arise from a mix of genetic and environmental factors.
    • Anxiety disorders, PTSD, OCD, and panic attacks are common.
    • Mood disorders (depression, bipolar disorder) also have varied causes.
    • Genetic and brain imaging studies provide insights into the biological underpinnings of mental disorders.

    Addiction

    • Addiction is a chronic brain disease marked by loss of control over substance use.
    • Factors like tolerance and withdrawal contribute to the addiction cycle.
    • The brain's reward system is highly influenced by addictive substances such as nicotine, opioids and alcohol.
    • Nicotine replacement therapy, nonnicotine medications, and behavioral therapies can treat nicotine addiction.
    • The brain is changed by drug abuse resulting in physical and psychological dependence.

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