Neuroscience: Limbic System and Hippocampus
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Questions and Answers

What is the role of the stria terminalis in the brain?

  • It mediates sensory information from the olfactory bulb.
  • It carries input from the dorsal thalamus to the amygdala.
  • It connects the amygdala to the hypothalamus and septal nuclei. (correct)
  • It integrates motor signals from the basal ganglia.

    • Which pathway is responsible for influencing decisions related to movement based on emotional information?

  • The ventral striatum pathway. (correct)
  • The direct olfactory tract pathway.
  • The hippocampal-neocortical pathway.
  • The lateral amygdalofugal pathway.

    • Which part of the diencephalon includes the pineal gland?

  • Epithalamus (correct)
  • Subthalamus
  • Dorsal thalamus
  • Hypothalamus

    • Where do fibres from the ventral amygdalofugal pathway project after leaving the amygdala?

    <p>To the ventral pallidum beneath the anterior commissure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure is solely visible on an intact brain from the diencephalon?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major input bundle is associated with the habenular nuclei?

    <p>Stria medullaris of thalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is located at the base of the stalk of the pineal gland?

    <p>Posterior commissure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the location of the subthalamus?

    <p>Lateral to the hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of tumors affecting the pineal gland?

    <p>Hydrocephaly due to cerebral aqueduct blockage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures are interconnected with the subthalamic nucleus?

    <p>Basal ganglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure serves as a bridge between the emotional responses and physiological drives within the limbic system?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hippocampus within the limbic system?

    <p>Facilitating memory formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component connects the medial temporal lobe to the hypothalamus?

    <p>Fornix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the limbic system primarily interacts with the anterior thalamic nucleus?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is located beneath the uncus and merges with the periamygdaloid cortex?

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical component lies superior to septum pellucidum?

    <p>Fornix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily involved in the processing of sensory inputs to the amygdala?

    <p>Thalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which limbic structure is divided into medial, central, and basolateral nuclei?

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region contains the septal nuclei?

    <p>Septum pellucidum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the diencephalon primarily serve in relation to limbic pathways?

    <p>Interconnection of sensory pathways</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which thalamic nucleus serves as the somatosensory relay nucleus for the body?

    <p>Ventral posterolateral nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of information is the medial geniculate nucleus responsible for processing?

    <p>Auditory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which thalamic nucleus is continuous with the pulvinar?

    <p>Lateral posterior nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nuclei are located posterior to the ventral tier nuclei and inferior to the pulvinar?

    <p>Lateral geniculate and medial geniculate nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of nuclei are referred to as intralaminar nuclei?

    <p>Nuclei that lie between internal and external medullary lamina</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary origin of major afferents to the hypothalamus?

    <p>Septal nuclei and hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which fibers project to the mammillary body from the hippocampus?

    <p>Forix fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure has a bidirectional connection to the medial forebrain bundle?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the efferent pathways from the hypothalamus?

    <p>They mainly reflect the afferent pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main structural feature that divides the thalamus into medial and lateral groups?

    <p>Internal medullary lamina</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nuclei are part of the lateral group of thalamic nuclei?

    <p>Pulvinar and ventral posterior nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following boundaries does not describe the thalamus?

    <p>Medially bordered by the interthalamic adhesion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nucleic group has a single large nucleus known as the dorsomedial nucleus?

    <p>Medial group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structures are located caudal to the pineal gland?

    <p>Habenular nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of tumours affecting the pineal gland in relation to cerebrospinal fluid?

    <p>Compression of the cerebral aqueduct leading to hydrocephaly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which major input bundle projects to the habenular nuclei?

    <p>Stria medullaris of thalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the subthalamus located in relation to the thalamus and hypothalamus?

    <p>Inferior to thalamus and lateral to hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component is located between the subthalamic nucleus and thalamus?

    <p>Zona incerta</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hypothalamus?

    <p>Mediating autonomic and endocrine functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is continuous with the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

    <p>Median eminence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region of the hypothalamus is located above the optic chiasm?

    <p>Anterior region</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the periventricular zone of the hypothalamus?

    <p>Forming the wall of the third ventricle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nuclei are located within the medial zone of the hypothalamus?

    <p>Dorsomedial and ventromedial nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anatomical area is known as the tuber cinereum?

    <p>Area bound by the optic chiasm and tracts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    From which two general areas do the neural inputs to the hypothalamus arise?

    <p>Forebrain and spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which zone of the hypothalamus overlaps with the tuberal region and contains several nuclei?

    <p>Medial zone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure provides major forebrain afferents to the hypothalamus from the basal forebrain region?

    <p>Septal nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which thalamic boundary is located superiorly?

    <p>Floor of lateral ventricle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells in the retina project to the suprachiasmatic nucleus?

    <p>Photosensitive retinal ganglion cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the major afferent pathways to the hypothalamus?

    <p>They include inputs from both the forebrain and the brainstem.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding the thalamic nuclei?

    <p>Each nucleus serves a unique sensory pathway.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure primarily mediates outputs to the cerebral cortex from the hypothalamus?

    <p>Orexinergic fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the internal medullary lamina in the thalamus?

    <p>It divides the thalamus into medial and lateral groups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is located adjacent to the septum pellucidum and involved in hypothalamic inputs?

    <p>Ventral striatum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the limbic system?

    <p>Transforming motivations and physiological drives into behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure acts as a bridge between the autonomic and voluntary responses to environmental changes?

    <p>Limbic structures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the hippocampus located in relation to the parahippocampal gyrus?

    <p>Above the medial part</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What components are included in the major limbic subsystems?

    <p>Amygdala and hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily characterized by widespread connections involving sensory, motor, and limbic pathways?

    <p>Diencephalon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is directly connected to the medial temporal lobe and the hypothalamus?

    <p>Fornix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the septal nuclei within the limbic system?

    <p>Facilitating communication between cortical and subcortical structures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe is associated with the dentate gyrus within the hippocampus?

    <p>Temporal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the components of the fornix?

    <p>Crura, body, and columns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the limbic system specifically processes emotional information?

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which thalamic nucleus functions as the somatosensory relay for the head?

    <p>Ventral posteromedial nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the ventral posterolateral nucleus from other thalamic nuclei?

    <p>It serves as a relay nucleus for the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which thalamic nuclei are located posterior to the ventral tier nuclei?

    <p>Lateral geniculate nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure is formed by the additional layer of cells covering the medial surface of the thalamus?

    <p>Midline nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nucleus is primarily involved in the processing of auditory information?

    <p>Medial geniculate nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Limbic System

    • Structures within the limbic system serve as bridges between voluntary and involuntary responses to environmental changes
    • Contains cortical and subcortical components
    • Plays a role in turning motivation and physiological drives into behaviors
    • Two major limbic subsystems center around the amygdala and hippocampus
    • Structurally similar cortex extends over the uncus, across the insula to the orbital cortex
    • Hippocampal structures use the posterior cingulate and parahippocampal cortex as a relay to the neocortex and have a close relationship with the anterior thalamic nucleus and mammillary body

    Hippocampus

    • Located above the medial part of the parahippocampal gyrus
    • Curved elevation along the floor of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle
    • Associated with the dentate gyrus
    • Subcortical projections to the septal nuclei, mammillary nuclei, nucleus accumbens, and anterior thalamic nuclei

    Septum Pellucidum

    • Midline structure composed of fibers, sparse gray matter and neuroglia
    • Below the septum pellucidum is the septal region containing septal nuclei (dorsal, ventral, medial, and caudal groups)

    Fornix

    • C-shaped white matter tract located inferior to the septum pellucidum
    • Connects the medial temporal lobe to the hypothalamus and other limbic structures
    • Divided into crura, commissure, body, columns and fimbriae

    Amygdala

    • Collection of about a dozen nuclei located beneath the uncus, at the anterior end of the hippocampus and inferior horn of the lateral ventricle
    • Merges with the periamygdaloid cortex, which forms part of the surface of the uncus and parahippocampal gyrus
    • Nuclei are subdivided into medial, central, and basolateral groups

    Sensory Inputs to Amygdala

    • Four routes:
      • Via stria terminalis: carries input from hypothalamus and septal nuclei
      • Via ventral amygdalofugal pathway: from thalamus and hypothalamus, as well as orbital and anterior cingulate cortex
      • Via lateral olfactory tract: from olfactory bulb and cortex
      • Directly from temporal lobe structures such as neocortex and hippocampus

    Projections from Amygdala

    • Fibres leave via stria terminalis and ventral amygdalofugal pathway
    • Fibres in the ventral pathway reach the ventral striatum, including the area of fusion between the putamen and caudate nucleus, and then project into the ventral pallidum beneath the anterior commissure
    • These connections to the basal ganglia provide a route for "emotional-related information" to influence decisions on movement
    • Anything considered pleasurable increases the release of dopamine in the ventral striatum due to projections

    Diencephalon

    • Divided into four parts:
      • Epithalamus: including pineal gland
      • Dorsal thalamus: known as thalamus
      • Subthalamus
      • Hypothalamus
    • Only portions of the diencephalon that can be seen on an intact brain are the inferior surface of the hypothalamus and mammillary bodies as well as the infundibular stalk

    Diencephalon

    • Boundaries:
      • Superiorly: body of lateral ventricle
      • Inferiorly: exposed to subarachnoid space
      • Caudally: Plane through posterior commissure
      • Rostrally: Anterior commissure

    Epithalamus

    • Pineal gland is a midline structure situated rostral to the superior colliculus resembling a pinecone
    • Arises as an evagination from the roof of the diencephalon
    • Attached to the diencephalon via a stalk
    • Tunors to this gland compress the midbrain, causing hydrocephaly since the cerebral aqueduct can be squeezed shut

    Epithalamus

    • Caudally: at the base of the stalk of the pineal gland is the posterior commissure
    • Rostrally, on either side is a small swelling: the habenula, under which are the habenular nuclei
      • One major input bundle: stria medullaris of thalamus, fibres originate in the globus pallidus and some limbic structures
      • One major output bundle: habenulointerpeduncular tract (fasciculus retroflexus), located between the habenular nuclei and interpeduncular nucleus (between cerebral peduncles)

    Subthalamus

    • Parts of the midbrain tegmenth continue into the diencephalon as the subthalamus
    • Located inferior to the thalamus, lateral to the hypothalamus, medial to the cerebral peduncle and internal capsule
    • Contains rostral portions of the red nucleus and substantia nigra, the subthalamic nucleus (interconnected with basal ganglia), and the zona incerta (small mass of gray matter between the subthalamic nucleus and thalamus)

    Forebrain Inputs

    • Major forebrain afferents to the hypothalamus arise from:
      • Septal nuclei and nearby parts of the basal forebrain as well as the ventral striatum (located adjacent to septum pellucidum)
      • Hippocampus (fibres located in the fornix and go to the mammillary body)
      • Amygdala (projects fibres via two routes: 1. Via stria terminalis 2. Fibres pass under the lentiform nucleus)
      • Insula and some related cortical areas (fibres arise from orbital and medial prefrontal cortex and join medial forebrain bundle, bidirectional, associated with fibres from septal nuclei and fibres from the spinal cord on the other side)
      • Retina (projections from photosensitive retinal ganglion cells to the suprachiasmatic nucleus)

    Hypothalamic Outputs

    • Mostly reflect afferent pathways
    • Projections from the hypothalamus to the septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, brainstem, and spinal cord via the same fibre bundles
    • Efferents to the cerebral cortex blanket the cortex, rather than focusing on limbic areas:
      • Histaminergic fibres from the tuberomammillary nucleus
      • Orexinergic fibres from the tuberal and posterior hypothalamus

    Thalamus

    • Large, egg-shaped nuclear masses with a posterior appendage
    • Major relay-station for pathways, subdividing it into a series of nuclei
    • Borders:
      • Anteriorly: extends to the interventricular foramen
      • Superiorly: transverse cerebral fissure and floor of the lateral ventricle
      • Inferiorly: hypothalamic sulcus
      • Posteriorly: Overlaps midbrain

    Thalamic Nuclei

    • Thin, curved sheet of myelinated fibres - internal medullary lamina, divides the thalamus into medial and lateral groups of nuclei
    • Anteriorly the internal medullary lamina splits and encloses an anterior group - collectively known as the anterior nucleus, bordering the interventricular foramen
    • Medial group has a single large nucleus: dorsomedial nucleus
    • Lateral group comprises the bulk of the thalamus and is further divided into a dorsal and ventral tier

    Thalamic Nuclei

    • Dorsal tier of the lateral group:
      • Lateral dorsal nucleus
      • Lateral posterior nucleus
      • Large Pulvinar (Lateral posterior nucleus is continuous with pulvinar)
    • Ventral tier of the lateral group:
      • Ventral anterior nucleus
      • Ventral lateral nucleus
      • Ventral posterior nucleus (customary further divided into ventral posterolateral and ventral posteromedial nuclei)

    Thalamic Nuclei

    • Ventral posteromedial: somatosensory relay nucleus for the head
    • Ventral posterolateral: somatosensory relay nucleus for the body
    • Medial geniculate and lateral geniculate nuclei are located posterior to the ventral tier nuclei and inferior to the pulvinar, protruding posteriorly along the midbrain.
      • Medial: Auditory
      • Lateral: Visual

    Thalamus

    • An additional layer of cells cover the medial surface of the thalamus forming the midline nuclei of the thalamus, which fuse in the thalamic adhesion
    • Internal medullary lamina also splits at other locations to enclose other nuclei, collectively termed intralaminar nuclei - this together with the midline nuclei project to widespread areas of the cortex.
    • Lateral surface of the thalamus covered by a second sheet of myelinated fibres: the external medullary lamina - cells that lie between this lamina and the internal capsule form the thalamic reticular nucleus - this projects to other thalamic nuclei but not the cortex.

    Relay Station

    • The thalamus serves as a major relay station for pathways involved in sensory, motor, and limbic functions.

    Limbic System

    • The limbic system is responsible for turning motivations and physiological drives into behaviours
    • It's comprised of cortical and subcortical components
    • Cortical Components: Cingulate and parahippocampal gyri
    • Subcortical components: Hippocampus, amygdala
    • The limbic system acts as a bridge between autonomic and voluntary responses to changes in the environment

    Diencephalon

    • The diencephalon has widespread and important connections as the majority of sensory, motor and limbic pathways involve it
    • It serves as a "stop" along these pathways

    Limbic Structures

    • Limbic Structures serve as bridges between multimodal association areas and the hypothalamus
    • There are 2 major limbic subsystems centred around the amygdala and hippocampus
    • These subsystems include areas beyond the parahippocampal and cingulate gyri
    • Structurally similar cortex extends over the uncus and across the insula to the orbital cortex
    • The hippocampal subsystem uses the posterior cingulate and parahippocampal cortex as a relay to the neocortex
    • It has a close relationship with the anterior thalamic nucleus and the mammillary body

    Hippocampus

    • Located above the medial part of the parahippocampal gyrus
    • A curved elevation that lies along the floor of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle
    • Associated with the dentate gyrus
    • The dentate gyrus continues anteriorly with the notch of the uncus
    • Subcortical projections to:
      • Septal Nuclei
      • Mammillary Nuclei
      • Nucleus Accumbens
      • Anterior Thalamic Nuclei

    Septum Pellucidum

    • A midline structure comprised of fibres, sparse grey matter and neuroglia
    • Located below the septum pellucidum
    • Contains septal nuclei:
      • Dorsal
      • Ventral
      • Medial
      • Caudal

    Fornix

    • A C-shaped white matter tract located inferior to the septum pellucidum
    • Connects the medial temporal lobe to the hypothalamus and other limbic structures
    • Divided into:
      • Crura
      • Commissure
      • Body
      • Columns
      • Fimbriae

    Amygdala

    • A collection of about a dozen nuclei
    • Located beneath the uncus, at the anterior end of the hippocampus and inferior horn of the lateral ventricle
    • Merges with the periamygdaloid cortex, which forms part of the surface of the uncus and parahippocampal gyrus
    • Nuclei are subdivided into:
      • Medial
      • Central
      • Basolateral groups

    Sensory Inputs to Amygdala

    • There are four routes for inputs to the amygdala from the diencephalon
    • Boundaries:
      • Superiorly: Body of the lateral ventricle
      • Inferiorly: Exposed to subarachnoid space
      • Caudal: Plane through the posterior commissure *
      • Rostral: Anterior commissure *
    • Rostral and caudal are descriptive boundaries only

    Epithalamus

    • The pineal gland is a midline structure situated rostral to the superior colliculus and resembles a pinecone
    • It arises as an evagination from the roof of the diencephalon
    • Attached to the diencephalon via a stalk
    • Tumours of this gland compress the midbrain, can lead to hydrocephalus
    • Due to its location, tumours can compress the cerebral aqueduct, which can lead to hydrocephalus

    Epithalamus

    • Caudal: At the base of the stalk of the pineal gland is the posterior commissure
    • Rostral: On either side is a small swelling called the habenula
    • Contains the habenular nuclei
    • Major input bundle: Stria medullaris of thalamus
      • Fibres originate in the globus pallidus and some limbic structures
    • Major output bundle: Habenulointerpeduncular tract
      • Located between the habenular nuclei and the interpeduncular nucleus (between cerebral peduncles)

    Subthalamus

    • Parts of the midbrain tegmentum continue into the diencephalon as the subthalamus
    • Location:
      • Inferior to the thalamus
      • Lateral to the hypothalamus
      • Medial to the cerebral peduncle and internal capsule
    • Contains:
      • Rostral portions of the red nucleus and substantia nigra
      • Subthalamic nucleus
      • Zona incerta

    Hypothalamus

    • A small portion of the diencephalon
    • Involved in pathways concerning autonomic, endocrine, emotional, and somatic functions
    • Multiple functions based on:
      • Interconnections with various cortical and subcortical components
      • Outputs influencing the pituitary gland - hormonal changes
      • Interconnections with various visceral and somatic nuclei of the brainstem and spinal cord

    Hypothalamus

    • Inferior surface: Exposed directly to the subarachnoid space
    • Boundaries of inferior surface:
      • Optic chiasm, optic tracts and mammillary bodies - this area is known as the tuber cinereum
    • Median Eminence:
      • Protrudes from the tuber cinereum
      • Continuous with the infundibular stalk
        • Continuous with the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland

    Hypothalamus

    • Medial surface:
      • Boundaries:
        • Anterior: Lamina terminalis
        • Superior: Hypothalamic sulcus
        • Posterior: Caudal edge of the diencephalon
    • Preoptic area: Neural tissue functionally and structurally continuous with the hypothalamus, treated as part of the anterior hypothalamus
    • Three regions of the hypothalamus:
      1. Anterior: Above the optic chiasm
      2. Tuberal: Above and including the tuber cinereum
      3. Posterior: Above and including the mammillary bodies

    Hypothalamus

    • Longitudinal zones of the thalamus (transverse section):
      • Periventricular zone: Thin zone that makes up the wall of the third ventricle; contains the suprachiasmatic and arcuate nuclei
      • Medial zone: Contains several nuclei, zone overlapping the tuberal region contains the dorsomedial and ventromedial nuclei
      • Lateral zone: Lateral to the fornix, continuation of the reticular nucleus

    Inputs and Outputs of Limbic System

    • Neural inputs to the hypothalamus arise from two general areas:
      • Various parts of the forebrain: Relevant information to mediate somatic and autonomic states
      • Brainstem and spinal cord: Afferents conveying visceral and somatic information via the medial forebrain bundle and dorsal longitudinal fasciculus.

    Forebrain Inputs

    • Major forebrain afferents to the hypothalamus arise from:
      • Septal nuclei: Located adjacent to the septum pellucidum
      • Hippocampus: Fibres located in the fornix and go to the mammillary body
      • Amygdala: Projects fibres via two routes:
        1. Via the stria terminalis: Bundle that accompanies the caudate nucleus
        2. Fibres pass under the lentiform nucleus

    Forebrain Inputs

    • Insula and some other related cortical areas:
      • Fibres arise from the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex and join the medial forebrain bundle
      • Bidirectional association with fibres from the septal nuclei and fibres from the spinal cord on other side
    • Retina:
      • Projections from photosensitive retinal ganglion cells to the suprachiasmatic nucleus

    Hypothalamic Outputs

    • Efferent pathways mostly reflect afferent pathways
    • Projections from the hypothalamus to the septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, brainstem, and spinal cord via the same fibre bundles
    • Efferents to the cerebral cortex: Blanket the cortex rather than focusing on limbic areas:
      • Histaminergic fibres: From the tuberomammillary nucleus
      • Orexinergic fibres: From the tuberal and posterior hypothalamus

    Thalamus

    • Large, egg-shaped nuclear masses with a posterior appendage.
    • Major relay-station for pathways
    • Divided into a series of nuclei because each pathway uses separate portions of the thalamus
    • Boundaries:
      • Anteriorly: Extends to the interventricular foramen
      • Superiorly: Transverse cerebral fissure and floor of the lateral ventricle
      • Inferiorly: Hypothalamic sulcus
      • Posteriorly: Overlaps midbrain

    Thalamic Nuclei

    • Thin, curved sheet of myelinated fibres - internal medullary lamina, divides thalamus into medial and lateral groups of nuclei
    • Anteriorly, the internal medullary lamina splits and encloses an anterior group - collectively known as the anterior nucleus, bordering the interventricular foramen
    • Medial group: Has a single large nucleus - dorsomedial nucleus
    • Lateral group: Comprises the bulk of the thalamus and is further divided into a dorsal and ventral tier.

    Thalamic Nuclei

    • Dorsal tier of lateral group:
      • Lateral dorsal nucleus
      • Lateral posterior nucleus
      • Large Pulvinar
        • The lateral posterior nucleus is continuous with the pulvinar
    • Ventral tier of lateral group:
      • Ventral anterior nucleus
      • Ventral lateral nucleus
      • Ventral posterior nucleus
        • Customarily further divided into ventral posterolateral and ventral posteromedial nuclei

    Thalamic Nuclei

    • Ventral posteromedial: Somatosensory relay nucleus for the head
    • Ventral posterolateral: Somatosensory relay nucleus for the body
    • Medial geniculate and lateral geniculate nuclei: Located posterior to the ventral tier nuclei and inferior to the pulvinar, protruding posteriorly along the midbrain.
      • Medial: Auditory
      • Lateral: Visual

    Thalamic Nuclei

    • An additional layer of cells cover the medial surface of the thalamus and form the midline nuclei of thalamus, which fuse in the thalamic adhesion
    • Internal medullary lamina also splits at other locations and enclose other nuclei, collectively termed intralaminar nuclei - this together with the midline nuclei project to widespread areas of the cortex
    • Lateral surface of thalamus covered by a second sheet of myelinated fibres - external medullary lamina
      • Cells that lie between this lamina and the internal capsule form the thalamic reticular nucleus - this projects to other thalamic nuclei and not the cortex.

    Relay Station

    • The thalamus serves as a relay station in the nervous system, connecting different parts of the brain.

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