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Questions and Answers
What primarily consists of nerve cell bodies and neuroglia?
What primarily consists of nerve cell bodies and neuroglia?
Which structure connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain?
Which structure connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain?
What type of fluid is found in the ventricles of the brain?
What type of fluid is found in the ventricles of the brain?
How much cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced daily?
How much cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced daily?
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Which part of the brain is located between the cerebellum and the brainstem?
Which part of the brain is located between the cerebellum and the brainstem?
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What are supportive cells in the nervous system called?
What are supportive cells in the nervous system called?
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Which of the following ventricles is located between the thalamic walls?
Which of the following ventricles is located between the thalamic walls?
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What lines the ventricles of the brain?
What lines the ventricles of the brain?
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What occurs when the posterior part of the anulus fibrosus ruptures?
What occurs when the posterior part of the anulus fibrosus ruptures?
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What is referred pain along the distribution of the sciatic nerve known as?
What is referred pain along the distribution of the sciatic nerve known as?
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What is the main function of dermatomes in the nervous system?
What is the main function of dermatomes in the nervous system?
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Which reflex type involves multiple synapses?
Which reflex type involves multiple synapses?
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Which stage is NOT part of the typical reflex arc?
Which stage is NOT part of the typical reflex arc?
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What type of cells produce myelin in the central nervous system?
What type of cells produce myelin in the central nervous system?
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Which type of neuroglia provides nutritional support in the peripheral nervous system?
Which type of neuroglia provides nutritional support in the peripheral nervous system?
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What is the primary role of microglia in the CNS?
What is the primary role of microglia in the CNS?
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Which part of the brain is responsible for producing cerebrospinal fluid?
Which part of the brain is responsible for producing cerebrospinal fluid?
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Which of the following neuroglial cells is responsible for insulating synapses and absorbing neurotransmitters?
Which of the following neuroglial cells is responsible for insulating synapses and absorbing neurotransmitters?
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What are the two major divisions of the nervous system based on structure?
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system based on structure?
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Which of the following is NOT a component of the central nervous system?
Which of the following is NOT a component of the central nervous system?
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Which structure connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum?
Which structure connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum?
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How many pairs of spinal nerves are present in the peripheral nervous system?
How many pairs of spinal nerves are present in the peripheral nervous system?
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What are the surfaces of the cerebrum characterized by?
What are the surfaces of the cerebrum characterized by?
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Where is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) primarily produced?
Where is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) primarily produced?
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What is the pathway of CSF flow after it is produced in the lateral ventricles?
What is the pathway of CSF flow after it is produced in the lateral ventricles?
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Which foramina allow CSF to exit the fourth ventricle into the subarachnoid space?
Which foramina allow CSF to exit the fourth ventricle into the subarachnoid space?
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How does CSF get reabsorbed into the venous circulation?
How does CSF get reabsorbed into the venous circulation?
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What structures protect the brain and spinal cord?
What structures protect the brain and spinal cord?
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Which layer is NOT part of the meninges?
Which layer is NOT part of the meninges?
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What is the primary role of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
What is the primary role of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
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What is the anatomical term for the canal that connects the lateral and third ventricles?
What is the anatomical term for the canal that connects the lateral and third ventricles?
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What is the primary function of the dura mater?
What is the primary function of the dura mater?
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Where does the meningeal dural layer extend from and to?
Where does the meningeal dural layer extend from and to?
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What do dural partitions do within the cranial cavity?
What do dural partitions do within the cranial cavity?
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What is the role of arachnoid granulations?
What is the role of arachnoid granulations?
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Which layer of the meninges is firmly attached to the brain?
Which layer of the meninges is firmly attached to the brain?
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What is a characteristic of the arachnoid mater?
What is a characteristic of the arachnoid mater?
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What separates the arachnoid mater from the dura mater?
What separates the arachnoid mater from the dura mater?
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What is the nature of the outer dural layer?
What is the nature of the outer dural layer?
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What layer of the meninges is closely invested in the surface of the brain?
What layer of the meninges is closely invested in the surface of the brain?
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Which of the following materials is found in the subarachnoid space?
Which of the following materials is found in the subarachnoid space?
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What is the function of the arachnoid granulations?
What is the function of the arachnoid granulations?
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At which vertebral level does the spinal cord typically end in adults?
At which vertebral level does the spinal cord typically end in adults?
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What is the primary composition of the core of the spinal cord?
What is the primary composition of the core of the spinal cord?
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Which type of neuron has a cell body with a single neurite that divides shortly after leaving the body?
Which type of neuron has a cell body with a single neurite that divides shortly after leaving the body?
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What is the primary function of dendrites in a neuron?
What is the primary function of dendrites in a neuron?
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Which type of neuron is primarily found in the retina and provides the pathway for visual signals?
Which type of neuron is primarily found in the retina and provides the pathway for visual signals?
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What is contained within the cytoplasm of a neuron?
What is contained within the cytoplasm of a neuron?
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What is the primary role of the dura mater?
What is the primary role of the dura mater?
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Which component of the peripheral nervous system is primarily responsible for transmitting impulses away from the neuron?
Which component of the peripheral nervous system is primarily responsible for transmitting impulses away from the neuron?
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What structural feature distinguishes multipolar neurons from other types of neurons?
What structural feature distinguishes multipolar neurons from other types of neurons?
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Where does the meningeal dural layer extend from and to?
Where does the meningeal dural layer extend from and to?
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What do dural partitions primarily do within the cranial cavity?
What do dural partitions primarily do within the cranial cavity?
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Which of the following correctly describes the role of neurons in the nervous system?
Which of the following correctly describes the role of neurons in the nervous system?
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What structure allows for the one-way flow of cerebrospinal fluid to the bloodstream?
What structure allows for the one-way flow of cerebrospinal fluid to the bloodstream?
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Which type of nerve cell is characterized by having numerous processes but a single long axon?
Which type of nerve cell is characterized by having numerous processes but a single long axon?
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Which layer of the meninges is described as delicate and spidery?
Which layer of the meninges is described as delicate and spidery?
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What separates the arachnoid mater from the dura mater?
What separates the arachnoid mater from the dura mater?
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What is found at the junction of the outer dural layer and the skull?
What is found at the junction of the outer dural layer and the skull?
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What are dural sinuses primarily associated with?
What are dural sinuses primarily associated with?
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What is the primary function of astrocytes in the central nervous system?
What is the primary function of astrocytes in the central nervous system?
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Which type of neuroglia is responsible for producing myelin in the peripheral nervous system?
Which type of neuroglia is responsible for producing myelin in the peripheral nervous system?
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What role do microglia play in the central nervous system?
What role do microglia play in the central nervous system?
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How are the cerebral hemispheres connected?
How are the cerebral hemispheres connected?
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Which structure is responsible for the production of cerebrospinal fluid?
Which structure is responsible for the production of cerebrospinal fluid?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of the cerebrum's surface?
Which of the following is a characteristic of the cerebrum's surface?
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What are the primary types of neuroglia found in the central nervous system?
What are the primary types of neuroglia found in the central nervous system?
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What is one of the primary functions of satellite cells in the peripheral nervous system?
What is one of the primary functions of satellite cells in the peripheral nervous system?
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Which part of the nervous system is primarily responsible for the autonomic functions?
Which part of the nervous system is primarily responsible for the autonomic functions?
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Which of the following structures is NOT part of the central nervous system?
Which of the following structures is NOT part of the central nervous system?
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What is the primary function of the sympathetic nervous system?
What is the primary function of the sympathetic nervous system?
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Where do the fibers of the sympathetic nervous system originate?
Where do the fibers of the sympathetic nervous system originate?
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Which of the following describes a key characteristic of the parasympathetic nervous system?
Which of the following describes a key characteristic of the parasympathetic nervous system?
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Which cranial nerves are involved in the parasympathetic nervous system?
Which cranial nerves are involved in the parasympathetic nervous system?
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What is one of the primary roles of the sympathetic system during a 'fight or flight' response?
What is one of the primary roles of the sympathetic system during a 'fight or flight' response?
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What differentiates the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system in terms of location of pre-synaptic cell bodies?
What differentiates the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system in terms of location of pre-synaptic cell bodies?
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What happens to the gastrointestinal function during sympathetic activation?
What happens to the gastrointestinal function during sympathetic activation?
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In the autonomic nervous system, what is the main distinction between the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems?
In the autonomic nervous system, what is the main distinction between the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems?
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What typically happens when the nucleus pulposus is pushed out during a herniated intervertebral disc?
What typically happens when the nucleus pulposus is pushed out during a herniated intervertebral disc?
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In the context of spinal cord injury, what is a common consequence of damage to the emerging spinal nerves?
In the context of spinal cord injury, what is a common consequence of damage to the emerging spinal nerves?
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Which best describes the relationship between dermatomes and spinal nerves?
Which best describes the relationship between dermatomes and spinal nerves?
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Which of the following accurately describes a reflex arc's integration centre?
Which of the following accurately describes a reflex arc's integration centre?
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What kind of nerve supply is primarily involved in the referral of pain along the sciatic nerve in lumbar disc herniation?
What kind of nerve supply is primarily involved in the referral of pain along the sciatic nerve in lumbar disc herniation?
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What is the primary composition of the grey matter in the brain?
What is the primary composition of the grey matter in the brain?
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Which of the following structures contributes to the formation of cerebrospinal fluid in the lateral ventricles?
Which of the following structures contributes to the formation of cerebrospinal fluid in the lateral ventricles?
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What is the role of ependymal cells in the ventricles?
What is the role of ependymal cells in the ventricles?
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Which cavity is located between the cerebellum and brainstem?
Which cavity is located between the cerebellum and brainstem?
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How does cerebrospinal fluid flow from the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle?
How does cerebrospinal fluid flow from the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle?
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Which of the following best describes white matter in the brain?
Which of the following best describes white matter in the brain?
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What structure serves as a connection between the left and right thalamic walls?
What structure serves as a connection between the left and right thalamic walls?
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What is the function of the arachnoid granulations in the central nervous system?
What is the function of the arachnoid granulations in the central nervous system?
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What are the dural partitions responsible for within the cranial cavity?
What are the dural partitions responsible for within the cranial cavity?
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What is the main characteristic of the arachnoid mater?
What is the main characteristic of the arachnoid mater?
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Which structure allows for the one-way flow of cerebrospinal fluid to the bloodstream?
Which structure allows for the one-way flow of cerebrospinal fluid to the bloodstream?
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At which vertebral level does the meningeal dural layer end?
At which vertebral level does the meningeal dural layer end?
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What layer of the dura mater is loosely attached to the skull's vault?
What layer of the dura mater is loosely attached to the skull's vault?
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What is the primary role of the pia mater?
What is the primary role of the pia mater?
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What type of tissue is primarily found in the arachnoid mater?
What type of tissue is primarily found in the arachnoid mater?
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Which layer separates the arachnoid mater from the dura mater?
Which layer separates the arachnoid mater from the dura mater?
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What distinguishes a unipolar neuron from other types of neurons?
What distinguishes a unipolar neuron from other types of neurons?
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Which of the following best describes the function of axons in neurons?
Which of the following best describes the function of axons in neurons?
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In which part of the nervous system are bipolar neurons primarily found?
In which part of the nervous system are bipolar neurons primarily found?
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What is the primary structural feature of multipolar neurons?
What is the primary structural feature of multipolar neurons?
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Which type of neuron is often referred to as 'pseudounipolar'?
Which type of neuron is often referred to as 'pseudounipolar'?
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What is the basic working unit of the nervous system that transmits information?
What is the basic working unit of the nervous system that transmits information?
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What is the role of dendrites within a neuron?
What is the role of dendrites within a neuron?
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Which of the following examples represents a multipolar neuron?
Which of the following examples represents a multipolar neuron?
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Which cranial nerves contain presynaptic parasympathetic nerve cell bodies located in the gray matter of the brainstem?
Which cranial nerves contain presynaptic parasympathetic nerve cell bodies located in the gray matter of the brainstem?
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What is the primary role of sensory ganglia in the peripheral nervous system?
What is the primary role of sensory ganglia in the peripheral nervous system?
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Which of the following accurately describes visceral sensation?
Which of the following accurately describes visceral sensation?
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Which type of motor impulse is responsible for voluntary control over skeletal muscle?
Which type of motor impulse is responsible for voluntary control over skeletal muscle?
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What is the anatomical relationship between anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal) roots of spinal nerves?
What is the anatomical relationship between anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal) roots of spinal nerves?
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In which specific regions of the spinal cord can lateral horns be found?
In which specific regions of the spinal cord can lateral horns be found?
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Where are pre-aortic ganglia typically located?
Where are pre-aortic ganglia typically located?
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What characterizes sensory (afferent) impulses in terms of direction?
What characterizes sensory (afferent) impulses in terms of direction?
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Study Notes
Nervous System Cell Types
-
Neurons: Specialized cells for receiving stimuli and conducting nerve impulses. They are found in the brain, spinal cord, and ganglia.
- Cell body (soma): Contains the nucleus and other organelles.
- Dendrites: Receive information and conduct it towards the cell body.
- Axons: Conduct impulses away from the cell body.
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Neuroglia: Non-excitable cells providing structural support and producing myelin.
-
Central Nervous System (CNS):
- Astrocytes: Provide structural support, insulate synapses, and regulate neurotransmitters.
- Oligodendrocytes: Produce myelin in the CNS.
- Microglia: Act as macrophages, removing damaged neurons and infections.
- Ependymal cells: Line ventricles in the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. They produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
-
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
- Schwann cells: Produce myelin in the PNS.
- Satellite cells: Provide nutritional support and regulate ion concentration.
-
Central Nervous System (CNS):
Neuron Types
- Unipolar neurons: Have a single neurite that divides a short distance from the cell body. Examples include dorsal root ganglion neurons.
- Bipolar neurons: Elongated cell body with an axon at one end and a dendrite at the other. Examples include retinal bipolar cells and sensory cochlear and vestibular ganglia neurons.
- Multipolar neurons: Have numerous processes arising from the cell body. Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord, including motor neurons, are multipolar.
Synapses
- The point of communication between two neurons is called a synapse.
- Pre-synaptic neuron: Conducts the impulse toward the synapse.
- Post-synaptic neuron: Receives the impulse from the synapse.
Nervous System Organization
-
Functionally:
- Somatic nervous system: Controls voluntary movements.
- Visceral (Autonomic nervous system): Controls involuntary functions.
-
Structurally:
-
Central Nervous System (CNS):
- Brain: Located within the skull.
- Spinal cord: Located within the vertebral canal.
-
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
- Cranial nerves: Nerves originating from the brain.
- Spinal nerves: Nerves originating from the spinal cord.
-
Central Nervous System (CNS):
CNS Divisions
-
Brain:
- Cerebrum (Telencephalon): Responsible for higher cognitive functions.
- Diencephalon: Relays sensory information and controls autonomic functions.
-
Brain stem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord.
- Midbrain (Mesencephalon): Involved in motor control, vision, hearing, and sleep-wake cycles.
- Pons (Metencephalon): Relays information between the cerebrum and cerebellum.
- Medulla oblongata (Myelencephalon): Controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
- Cerebellum (Metencephalon): Coordinates movement and balance.
- Spinal cord: Conducts signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
PNS Divisions
- 31 pairs of spinal nerves: Originate from segments of the spinal cord.
- 12 pairs of cranial nerves: Originate from the brain.
Cerebrum
- Surface: Characterized by gyri (elevations), sulci (depressions), and fissures (deep depressions).
- Lobes: Five lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insular.
- Hemispheres: Two (left and right) connected by the corpus callosum.
Meninges
-
Dura mater: The tough outer layer.
- Outer endosteal layer: Attached to the skull.
- Inner meningeal layer: Separates from the endosteal layer to form dural partitions.
- Arachnoid mater: Delicate, spidery layer between dura mater and pia mater.
- Pia mater: Inner layer firmly attached to the brain.
Dural Partitions
- Falx cerebri: Separates the two cerebral hemispheres.
- Falx cerebeli: Separates the two cerebellar hemispheres.
- Dural sinuses: Intracranial venous structures.
Arachnoid mater
- Subdural space: Space between dura mater and arachnoid mater.
- Arachnoid granulations/villi: Projections of arachnoid mater that permit one-way flow of CSF from the subarachnoid space to the bloodstream.
Pia mater
- Subarachnoid space: Space between arachnoid mater and pia mater, containing CSF.
Spinal Cord
- Location: Extends from the foramen magnum to approximately the level of the disc between vertebrae L1/L2 in adults (L3 in neonates).
- Meninges: Covered by the same three meningeal layers as the brain.
- Swellings: Cervical (C5-T1) and lumbosacral (L1-S3).
-
Structure:
- Gray matter: Core of the spinal cord, containing neuron cell bodies.
- White matter: Surrounds the gray matter, containing myelinated axons.
Lumbar puncture
- Also known as a spinal tap.
- A needle is inserted into the subarachnoid space to collect CSF for diagnostic purposes.
- It can also be used to inject drugs or induce anesthesia.
Autonomic Nervous System
- Visceral motor system: Controls involuntary functions.
-
Sympathetic nervous system:
- "Fight or flight" response.
- Increases heart rate and contractility, blood pressure, and blood flow to muscles.
- Dilates pupils and bronchioles.
- Derived from cells in the lateral horn of the spinal cord (T1-L2).
-
Parasympathetic nervous system:
- "Rest and digest" response.
- Decreases heart rate, increases intestinal and glandular activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles.
- Constricts pupils and bronchioles.
- Derived from the cranial nerves (CNIII, CNVII, CNIX, CNX) and the sacral spinal cord (S2-4).
Autonomic Nervous System Structure
- Pre-ganglionic neuron: The first neuron in the pathway, whose cell body is located in the CNS.
- Post-ganglionic neuron: The second neuron in the pathway, whose cell body is located in a ganglion.
Sympathetic Nervous System
- Origin: Fibers originate in the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord (intermedio-lateral cell column of T1-L2).
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Origin: Fibers originate in the brain stem (cranial nerves) and the sacral spinal cord (S2-4).
Nervous System Overview
- The nervous system is responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information throughout the body.
- It coordinates bodily functions and enables us to interact with the environment.
Neuron Types
- Neurons are the basic functional unit of the nervous system.
- Unipolar neurons have a single neurite that divides, one proceeding to a peripheral structure and the other to the CNS.
- Bipolar neurons have an elongated cell body with an axon at one end and a dendrite at the other.
- Multipolar neurons have numerous processes arising from the cell body, with one long process being the axon and the rest dendrites.
Central Nervous System
- Grey matter consists of nerve cell bodies and neuroglia. It's found in the cortex and scattered in the core (basal ganglia).
- White matter consists of nerve fibers and neuroglia. It's located in the central/inner matter.
Ventricles
- The brain contains ventricles, CSF-filled cavities.
- There are two lateral, one third, and one fourth ventricle.
- Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced at a rate of 500ml/day.
- The choroid plexus in the ventricles produces CSF.
Meninges
- The meninges are three layers of protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord.
- Dura mater is the tough outer layer, with an outer endosteal layer and an inner meningeal layer.
- Arachnoid mater is a delicate, spider-like layer between the dura mater and pia mater.
- Pia mater is the inner layer, firmly attached to the brain.
Dural Partitions
- The meningeal dural layer encloses the brain and spinal cord, extending from the foramen magnum to S2.
- Dural partitions, such as falx cerebri and falx cerebeli, subdivide the cranial cavity.
- Dural sinuses are intracranial venous structures that drain blood from the brain.
Arachnoid Mater
- The arachnoid mater is delicate, non-vascular, and separated from the dura mater by the subdural space.
- Arachnoid granulations are finger-like projections that allow CSF flow to the bloodstream.
Spinal Nerve Injury
- Disc herniations, fractures of vertebral bodies, and osteoarthritis can cause pressure, stretching, or edema of the emerging spinal nerves.
- This can lead to dermatomal pain, muscle weakness, and diminished or absent reflexes.
Reflexes
- Reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to a stimulus.
- Monosynaptic reflexes involve a single synapse, like the knee-jerk reflex.
- Polysynaptic reflexes involve multiple synapses.
- Ganglia are clusters of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Presynaptic parasympathetic nerve cell bodies are found in the gray matter of the brainstem (CN III, VII, IX, X) and sacral segments of the spinal cord (S2-S4).
Important Definitions
- Afferent nerve impulses travel towards the CNS (sensory).
- Efferent nerve impulses travel away from the CNS (motor).
- Somatic sensation is well-localized and arises from body wall structures.
- Visceral sensation is often poorly localized or only perceived in disease, arising from blood vessels and internal organs.
- Voluntary motor control governs skeletal muscles.
- Autonomic (involuntary) motor control governs muscles over which we have no conscious control.
Spinal Cord Features
- The spinal cord has an H-shaped grey matter, surrounded by white matter.
- The dorsal horn receives sensory input.
- The ventral horn contains motor neurons.
- The lateral horn is present in the thoracic and sacral regions.
Ganglia Types
- Sensory ganglia are found along the dorsal roots of spinal nerves and cranial nerves V, VII, VIII, IX, and X.
- Autonomic ganglia are found in the paravertebral sympathetic chains, around great arteries, and in the walls of viscera.
Spinal Nerve Formation
- The anterior (ventral/motor) root and posterior (dorsal/sensory) root unite to form the spinal nerve.
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Test your knowledge on the nervous system with this quiz! It covers essential concepts such as nerve cell structures, cerebrospinal fluid, and reflex arcs. Perfect for students in neuroscience or related fields.