Neuroscience Basics Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which neuron type is responsible for bringing signals into the central nervous system (CNS)?

  • Efferent neurons
  • Motor neurons
  • Interneurons
  • Sensory neurons (correct)

Repolarization occurs when sodium (Na⁺) channels open, allowing sodium to flow out of the cell.

False (B)

What is the role of interneurons in the nervous system?

Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons.

The resting potential of a neuron is approximately ______ mV.

<p>-70</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their descriptions:

<p>Resting Potential = Negative charge inside the neuron at rest Depolarization = Positive charge due to Na⁺ influx Repolarization = Return to negative charge due to K⁺ efflux Hyperpolarization = Temporary more negative charge than resting potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of motor neurons?

<p>Control muscle movements (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In myelinated neurons, action potentials propagate by moving continuously along the entire length of the axon.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What maintains the resting potential of a neuron?

<p>The sodium-potassium pump and ion channels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the release of neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron?

<p>Ca²⁺ influx (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The muscle contraction signal is entirely dependent on sodium channels being opened.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What neurotransmitter is primarily involved in muscle contractions?

<p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

The __________ connects the brain to the spinal cord.

<p>brainstem</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of a reflex arc to their roles:

<p>Receptor = Detects stimulus Sensory neuron = Transmits information to the spinal cord Interneuron = Processes the information Motor neuron = Carries signals to effectors</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which lobe of the cerebrum is primarily responsible for processing visual information?

<p>Occipital Lobe (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The sympathetic nervous system helps maintain body balance and relaxation.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name one imaging technique that aids in diagnosing brain injuries.

<p>MRI or CAT scan</p> Signup and view all the answers

Neurotransmitters like __________ carry chemical signals between neurons.

<p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following neurotransmitters to their associated functions:

<p>Acetylcholine = Muscle contractions and memory Dopamine = Reward and pleasure GABA = Inhibitory neurotransmitter Serotonin = Mood regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following components is NOT part of the reflex arc?

<p>Efferent neuron (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The cerebellum is responsible for higher cognitive functions like reasoning.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the main functions of the brainstem?

<p>Regulates heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestive functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The __________ nervous system is responsible for the 'rest and digest' response.

<p>parasympathetic</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of fetal development during the third trimester?

<p>Growth and maturation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Teratogens can lead to developmental delays or cognitive impairments.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name one example of a maternal condition that can act as a teratogen.

<p>Poorly controlled diabetes</p> Signup and view all the answers

One form of assisted reproductive technology is __________, where eggs are fertilized in a laboratory dish.

<p>In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following ART procedures with their descriptions:

<p>In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) = Eggs are retrieved, fertilized, and transferred to the uterus. Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) = Direct injection of sperm into an egg. Egg or Sperm Donation = Using donor gametes for fertilization. Intrauterine Insemination (IUI) = Sperm is directly injected into the uterus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method of birth control is approximately 99% effective when taken correctly?

<p>Oral Contraceptives (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Condoms are 100% effective at preventing pregnancy.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does genotype represent in genetics?

<p>The genetic makeup of an organism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What hormone is primarily responsible for stimulating ovulation?

<p>LH (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The menstrual cycle lasts exactly 28 days for everyone.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A __________ is a tool used to predict possible genetic outcomes of a cross between two organisms.

<p>Punnett Square</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the genetics terms with their definitions:

<p>Allele = Different versions of a gene. Phenotype = Observable characteristics of an organism. Homozygous = Two identical alleles for a particular gene. Dominant = An allele that expresses its trait with one copy present.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name the hormone released by the pituitary gland that promotes the growth of ovarian follicles.

<p>FSH</p> Signup and view all the answers

In incomplete dominance, what is typically observed?

<p>A blend of the two alleles' phenotypes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The corpus luteum secretes __________ to prepare the uterus for possible pregnancy.

<p>progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sex-linked genes are located on the autosomes, not sex chromosomes.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following STIs with their symptoms:

<p>Chlamydia = Often asymptomatic, painful urination Gonorrhea = Painful urination, discharge HPV = Genital warts, mostly asymptomatic</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do rising estrogen levels have during the follicular phase?

<p>Inhibit further release of GnRH, LH, and FSH (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the random changes in allele frequencies in a population over time due to chance events?

<p>Genetic Drift</p> Signup and view all the answers

Round seeds are dominant over __________ seeds in Mendel's pea plants.

<p>wrinkled</p> Signup and view all the answers

Testosterone has a positive feedback effect on GnRH production.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of the menstrual cycle does ovulation occur?

<p>Ovulation phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks down, leading to a drop in __________ and __________ levels.

<p>progesterone, estrogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormones to their sources:

<p>GnRH = Hypothalamus LH = Pituitary gland Estrogen = Ovaries Testosterone = Testes</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of FSH in the male reproductive system?

<p>Promoting sperm production (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

HPV has been proven to be curable with antibiotics.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What complication can untreated gonorrhea cause in women?

<p>Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The __________ stage is when major organs begin forming in the embryo.

<p>embryonic</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the pituitary gland?

<p>Regulating other endocrine glands (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The hypothalamus releases hormones that stimulate the adrenal glands to produce cortisol.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What hormonal feedback mechanism is primarily involved in blood sugar regulation?

<p>Negative Feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

Insulin helps to lower blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into __________.

<p>cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match each hormone to its corresponding gland:

<p>TSH = Pituitary gland Insulin = Pancreas ACTH = Pituitary gland Thyroxine (T4) = Thyroid gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential health problem caused by endocrine disruptors?

<p>Infertility (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Positive feedback is the most common mechanism for maintaining homeostasis.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name one endocrine disease related to insulin deficiency.

<p>Diabetes Mellitus</p> Signup and view all the answers

The hormone __________ is released by the pancreas to help lower blood sugar levels.

<p>Insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following diseases with their characteristics:

<p>Type 1 Diabetes = Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing cells Type 2 Diabetes = Insulin resistance often due to lifestyle factors Hypothyroidism = Underactive thyroid gland Cushing's Syndrome = Excessive cortisol production</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is responsible for stimulating the thyroid gland?

<p>TSH (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Phthalates are a type of heavy metal that can act as endocrine disruptors.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is marked by extreme fatigue and increased thirst due to high blood sugar levels?

<p>Diabetes Mellitus</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cortisol is released by the adrenal glands in response to __________.

<p>stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step of the translation process?

<p>Ribosome binding to the mRNA start codon (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Gene therapy can provide a permanent solution for some genetic disorders.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define mutations in genetics.

<p>Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence that can affect protein structure or function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hemophilia is caused by mutations in genes that produce __________.

<p>clotting factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following RNA types with their roles:

<p>mRNA = Carries genetic code to the ribosome tRNA = Delivers amino acids to the ribosome rRNA = Forms part of the ribosome structure siRNA = Regulates gene expression</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes point mutations?

<p>Alters a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Joint bleeding is not a symptom of hemophilia.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of tRNA in the translation process?

<p>tRNA delivers specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the mRNA codons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

A mutation can lead to a __________ protein if it results in an incorrect amino acid sequence.

<p>nonfunctional</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method is NOT commonly used in genetic engineering?

<p>Chromosomal duplication (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic symptom of Alzheimer's disease?

<p>Memory loss (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cocaine is classified as a depressant drug.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of insulin in the body?

<p>To lower blood sugar levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ________ gland is often referred to as the 'master gland' because it controls other endocrine glands.

<p>pituitary</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following endocrine glands with their primary functions:

<p>Hypothalamus = Links the nervous and endocrine systems Adrenal Glands = Releases stress hormones Thyroid Gland = Regulates metabolism Pancreas = Controls blood sugar levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are beta-amyloid plaques associated with?

<p>Alzheimer's disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Steroid hormones are made from amino acids.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name one effect of cocaine use.

<p>Increased energy or euphoria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The posterior pituitary releases ________ and ________ hormones.

<p>oxytocin, antidiuretic</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following hormones with their gland of origin:

<p>Cortisol = Adrenal Glands Insulin = Pancreas Estrogen = Ovaries Testosterone = Testes</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of hormone binds to intracellular receptors?

<p>Steroid hormones (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cocaine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety and irritability.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does dopamine play in the effects of cocaine?

<p>Dopamine increase leads to euphoria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cholinesterase inhibitors are used in the treatment of ________ disease.

<p>Alzheimer's</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following glands is responsible for regulating stress responses?

<p>Adrenal Glands (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is NOT associated with hypothyroidism?

<p>High blood pressure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Meiosis results in two identical daughter cells.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of thyroxine in the body?

<p>To regulate metabolic processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cushing's Syndrome is caused by the overproduction of __________.

<p>cortisol</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following female reproductive structures with their functions:

<p>Ovaries = Produce eggs and hormones Fallopian Tubes = Transport eggs to the uterus Uterus = Site of embryo implantation Vagina = Passage for childbirth and menstrual flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is a treatment option for Cushing's Syndrome caused by a tumor?

<p>Surgical removal of the tumor (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Eggs are the smallest cells in the human body.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What event marks the beginning of human life?

<p>Fertilization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

During prophase I of meiosis, genetic diversity is increased through __________.

<p>crossing over</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the zona pellucida?

<p>Protect the egg and bind sperm (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The male reproductive system primarily produces eggs.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the corpus luteum if pregnancy does not occur?

<p>It breaks down.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The three parts of the uterus are the endometrium, myometrium, and __________.

<p>cervix</p> Signup and view all the answers

What regulates hormone production in the female menstrual cycle?

<p>Both positive and negative feedback (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary goal of the Human Genome Project?

<p>To identify all human genes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

DNA is a single-stranded molecule.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA?

<p>Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ________ is a diagram that shows the inheritance of a trait through generations.

<p>pedigree</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following enzymes with their roles in DNA replication:

<p>Helicase = Unwinds the DNA helix DNA Polymerase III = Adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strand DNA Ligase = Seals gaps between DNA fragments RNA Primase = Synthesizes RNA primer</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a step in DNA replication?

<p>Protein synthesis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Each DNA molecule consists of one old strand and one new strand after replication.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of RNA?

<p>Involved in protein synthesis and gene expression</p> Signup and view all the answers

During transcription, RNA polymerase synthesizes ________ from the DNA template.

<p>mRNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of genetic trait is hemophilia?

<p>Sex-linked recessive (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Karyotypes can be used to identify chromosomal abnormalities.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name two key achievements of the Human Genome Project.

<p>Gene mapping and understanding genetic variability</p> Signup and view all the answers

Adenine pairs with ________ in DNA base pairing.

<p>Thymine</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Homeostasis in the Nervous System

The ability of the nervous system to maintain a stable internal environment.

Nervous and Endocrine Systems Working Together

The nervous system and the endocrine system work together to detect and respond to internal and external stimuli, ensuring the body's internal environment stays within a safe range.

Sensory Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the environment to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles, glands, and organs.

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Interneurons

Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.

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Action Potential

A rapid electrical signal that travels along a neuron, allowing for communication within the nervous system.

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Resting Potential

The state of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting a signal.

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Depolarization

The process of a neuron's membrane becoming more positive due to the influx of sodium ions (Na⁺).

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Synapse

The junction between two neurons where an electrical impulse is converted into a chemical signal.

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Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that carries signals across the synapse from one neuron to another.

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Synaptic Transmission

The process of a neurotransmitter being released from the presynaptic neuron, crossing the synaptic cleft, and binding to a receptor on the postsynaptic neuron.

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Presynaptic Neuron

The neuron sending the signal across the synapse.

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Postsynaptic Neuron

The neuron receiving the signal across the synapse.

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Neuromuscular Junction

A specialized synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber.

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Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in muscle contraction and memory.

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Reflex Arc

A simple nerve pathway that produces a predictable and involuntary response to a stimulus.

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Receptor

A specialized cell that detects a stimulus.

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Effector

The muscle or gland that carries out the response to a stimulus.

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Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions, sensory processing, motor control, and complex behavior.

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Cerebellum

The part of the brain located at the back of the head, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture.

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What is Alzheimer's disease?

A progressive neurological disorder that affects memory, thinking, and behavior. It is caused by abnormal protein buildup in the brain, leading to neuron loss and brain shrinkage.

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What are beta-amyloid plaques?

Abnormal protein clumps found in Alzheimer's brains. These interfere with neuron function.

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What are tau tangles?

Twisted protein fibers found in Alzheimer's brains. They disrupt cell transport.

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What are the symptoms of Alzheimer's?

Memory loss, confusion, difficulty with daily tasks, mood changes, and impaired judgment. These worsen over time.

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What are some treatments for Alzheimer's?

Cholinesterase inhibitors (e.g., donepezil) can slow symptom progression by increasing acetylcholine levels.

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What is cocaine?

A powerful stimulant drug used recreationally for its short-term effects of euphoria, increased energy, and alertness.

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How does cocaine affect the brain?

Cocaine works by increasing dopamine levels in the brain, leading to feelings of pleasure and motivation.

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What is cocaine dependence?

Repeated cocaine use can lead to tolerance and dependence, requiring more of the drug for the same effects.

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What are some short-term effects of cocaine?

Cocaine raises heart rate and blood pressure, increasing the risk of heart attack or stroke.

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What are some long-term effects of cocaine?

Long-term cocaine use can cause anxiety, paranoia, hallucinations, and severe physical and mental health issues.

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What are some cocaine withdrawal symptoms?

Withdrawal symptoms from cocaine include fatigue, depression, irritability, increased appetite, and intense cravings.

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What is the hypothalamus?

The main control center for the endocrine system, linking the nervous system and endocrine system.

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What is the pituitary gland?

The master gland that secretes hormones like growth hormone and controls other glands.

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What is the thyroid gland?

Produces hormones like thyroxine that regulate metabolism, energy levels, and temperature.

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What is the pancreas?

Produces hormones like insulin and glucagon that regulate blood sugar levels.

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Hypothyroidism

A condition characterized by an underactive thyroid gland, leading to decreased production of thyroid hormones.

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Hypothyroidism Symptoms

Fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, dry skin, constipation, depression, and slowed heart rate are some of the common symptoms.

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Hypothyroidism Treatment

Thyroid hormone replacement therapy (e.g., levothyroxine) is the primary treatment.

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Cushing's Syndrome

A condition characterized by the overproduction of cortisol, often caused by a pituitary gland tumor or steroid medication overuse.

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Cushing's Syndrome Symptoms

Weight gain, particularly around the abdomen and face, purple stretch marks, high blood pressure, thinning skin, muscle weakness, and osteoporosis are common symptoms.

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Cushing's Syndrome Treatment

Treatment often involves surgical removal of a tumor, reduction or discontinuation of steroid medications, or cortisol-reducing drugs.

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Meiosis

A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in four genetically unique daughter cells.

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Role of Meiosis in Sexual Reproduction

Meiosis ensures that offspring inherit unique combinations of genes from both parents and maintains a stable chromosome number across generations.

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Genetic Variation in Meiosis

Crossing over during Prophase I and independent assortment during Metaphase I introduce genetic diversity by mixing parental genes.

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Halving Chromosome Number in Meiosis

Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid (2n) to haploid (n), ensuring a consistent chromosome number in offspring.

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Male Reproductive Anatomy

The male reproductive organs are responsible for producing sperm cells and the male sex hormone, testosterone.

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Female Reproductive Anatomy

The female reproductive organs are responsible for producing egg cells and the female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone.

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Egg (Ovum)

The largest cell in the human body, containing 23 chromosomes and a protective layer called the Zona Pellucida.

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Sperm

The smallest human cell, optimized for motility, with a head containing DNA, a midpiece for energy, and a tail for movement.

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Fertilization

The process of a sperm cell fusing with an egg cell to form a zygote, marking the beginning of human life.

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GnRH

The hormone released by the hypothalamus that stimulates the pituitary gland to release LH and FSH.

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Estrogen

A hormone produced by the ovaries during the follicular phase, promoting the development of ovarian follicle.

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Follicular Phase

The phase of the menstrual cycle where ovarian follicles develop and estrogen levels rise.

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Ovulation

The process by which a mature egg is released from the ovary.

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Luteal Phase

The phase of the menstrual cycle following ovulation, where the corpus luteum forms and secretes progesterone.

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Progesterone

A hormone produced by the corpus luteum during the luteal phase, maintaining the thickened uterine lining for potential implantation.

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Menstruation

The process of the uterine lining shedding and being expelled as menstrual blood if pregnancy hasn't occurred.

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LH

The hormone released by the pituitary gland that triggers ovulation.

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Testosterone

A hormone produced by the testes, responsible for male sexual development and characteristics.

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Negative Feedback

The process where high levels of a hormone inhibit further release of that hormone.

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Chlamydia trachomatis

A bacterium that causes chlamydia, a common STI.

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Neisseria gonorrhoeae

A bacterium that causes gonorrhea, another frequently occurring STI.

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Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

A virus that causes genital warts and can lead to cancer.

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Embryonic Stage

The stage of development from fertilization to the end of the 8th week of pregnancy, when major organs form.

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Fetal Stage

The stage of development from week 9 until birth, characterized by rapid growth and organ maturation.

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Teratogens

Substances or environmental factors that can cause birth defects or abnormal development in a fetus.

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In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

The process of retrieving eggs from a woman's ovaries, fertilizing them with sperm in a lab, and then transferring the resulting embryos to the woman's uterus.

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Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)

A single sperm is injected directly into an egg to achieve fertilization. Often combined with IVF.

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Egg or Sperm Donation

Using donor eggs or sperm when a couple cannot produce their own.

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Oral Contraceptives

Pills containing synthetic hormones that prevent ovulation and thicken cervical mucus to block sperm.

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Condoms (Male and Female)

A barrier method that prevents sperm from entering the uterus. Male condoms are worn over the penis and female condoms are inserted into the vagina.

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Intrauterine Device (IUD)

A small, T-shaped device inserted into the uterus to prevent pregnancy. It can be hormonal or non-hormonal.

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Gene

A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or trait.

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Allele

Different versions of a gene that may result in variations of a trait.

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Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism, specifically the alleles it carries for a given trait.

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Phenotype

The physical expression or observable characteristics of an organism resulting from the genotype.

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Homozygous

An organism with two identical alleles for a particular gene.

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Heterozygous

An organism with two different alleles for a particular gene.

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Dominant

An allele that expresses its trait even when only one copy is present.

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Recessive

An allele that only expresses its trait when two copies are present.

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Transcription

A process where the genetic information encoded in DNA is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule.

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Translation

A process where the genetic code carried by mRNA is used to synthesize a protein.

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Point Mutation

A type of mutation where a single nucleotide is changed within a gene.

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Chromosomal Mutation

A mutation that affects the entire chromosome or large segments of it.

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Hemophilia

A genetic disorder where the blood doesn't clot properly because of missing clotting factors.

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Factor Replacement Therapy

A treatment for hemophilia that involves injecting the missing clotting factor.

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Gene Therapy

A newer treatment for hemophilia that involves inserting a functioning gene for the missing clotting factor into a patient's cells.

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Mutation

A change in the DNA sequence that can affect the structure or function of proteins.

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Protein Synthesis

The process of converting mRNA into a protein.

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Frameshift Mutation

A type of mutation that changes the reading frame of the genetic code, leading to a shift in the amino acid sequence.

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Why is the pituitary gland called the "master gland"?

The pituitary gland is often referred to as the "master gland" because it controls and regulates the activity of many other endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, adrenal glands, and gonads. It acts as a relay center for signals from the hypothalamus to these glands. This allows the pituitary to play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis.

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How does insulin regulate blood sugar?

Insulin is released by the pancreas in response to high blood sugar levels. It helps lower blood sugar by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells, primarily in the liver, muscles, and fat tissue. As blood sugar returns to normal, insulin production decreases, preventing excessive glucose use. This is a classic example of negative feedback.

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What is a pedigree?

A chart that shows how a trait or health condition is passed down through generations of a family.

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What is a karyotype?

A laboratory image of a person's chromosomes arranged in numerical order, used to check for abnormalities in chromosome number or structure.

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What is a nucleotide?

The building block of DNA, consisting of a phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar, and one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, or cytosine).

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What is DNA replication?

The process by which a cell makes an exact copy of its DNA, ensuring each daughter cell receives a complete copy of genetic material.

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What is Helicase's role in DNA replication?

An enzyme that unwinds the DNA helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds between base pairs, creating the replication fork.

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What is DNA Polymerase III's role in DNA replication?

The main enzyme that adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strand during replication, working in the 5’ to 3’ direction, and also proofreads for errors.

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What is transcription?

The process by which the genetic information in DNA is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule.

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What is translation?

The process by which the genetic information in mRNA is used to build a protein.

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What is messenger RNA (mRNA)?

A type of RNA that carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes, acting as a messenger.

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What is transfer RNA (tRNA)?

A type of RNA that brings specific amino acids to the ribosome during translation, matching them to the codons on mRNA.

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What is ribosomal RNA (rRNA)?

A type of RNA that forms part of the ribosome, the site of protein synthesis.

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What is gene expression?

The process by which a cell determines which genes to express (make proteins from) in response to environmental signals or internal needs.

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What is a gene?

A unit of heredity that is responsible for a particular trait, located on a chromosome.

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What is a mutation?

A change in the DNA sequence of a gene.

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What is a trait?

A characteristic or feature of an organism that is determined by its genes.

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What are endocrine disruptors?

Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interfere with the normal functioning of the endocrine system, potentially mimicking, blocking, or altering the action of natural hormones. This can lead to health problems like reproductive issues, developmental effects, cancer, and metabolic disorders.

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What is diabetes mellitus?

Diabetes mellitus can be Type 1 or Type 2. Type 1 is an autoimmune disease where the pancreas doesn't produce enough insulin. Type 2 is when cells don't respond properly to insulin. Both lead to high blood sugar levels.

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What is hypothyroidism?

Hypothyroidism is an underactive thyroid gland, meaning it doesn't produce enough thyroid hormones, leading to slower metabolism, weight gain, and other health problems.

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How do feedback loops help maintain homeostasis?

Feedback loops are essential for maintaining homeostasis. Negative feedback is the most common type, where the body counteracts deviations from a set point. For example, if blood sugar increases, insulin is released to lower it, and when it returns to normal, insulin production decreases. This prevents overcompensation.

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Why are endocrine disruptors a concern?

Endocrine disruptors are a growing concern due to their widespread presence in the environment and consumer products. They can interfere with hormone signaling, causing a range of health issues. Increased awareness and regulation are crucial to protect public health.

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What causes chlamydia?

Chlamydia trachomatis is a bacterium that causes chlamydia, a common STI. It can infect the genitals, rectum, and eyes.

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What causes gonorrhea?

Neisseria gonorrhoeae is a bacterium that causes gonorrhea, another common STI. It can infect the genitals, rectum, and throat.

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What causes HPV?

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a virus that causes genital warts and can lead to cancer. There are vaccines available to protect against HPV.

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What happens during the embryonic stage?

The embryonic stage lasts from fertilization to eight weeks of pregnancy. This is the time when major organs start to develop.

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What happens during the fetal stage?

The fetal stage begins at nine weeks and continues until birth. During this stage, organs mature, and the fetus grows significantly in size.

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What are teratogens?

Teratogens are substances that can cause birth defects or developmental problems in a fetus. These can include drugs, alcohol, environmental toxins, and certain infections.

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What is in-vitro fertilization (IVF)?

In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a process where eggs are retrieved from a woman's ovaries and fertilized with sperm in a lab. The embryos are then transferred to the woman's uterus.

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What is intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)?

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is a technique where a single sperm is directly injected into an egg to achieve fertilization. It's often used in conjunction with IVF.

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Study Notes

Module 1 - The Nervous System

  • The nervous system, working with the endocrine system, regulates internal and external stimuli for homeostasis.
  • The peripheral nervous system (PNS) contains sensory neurons (bringing signals into the CNS) and motor neurons (carrying signals out).
  • Sensory neurons transmit signals from environmental input (like touching a hot surface).
  • Motor neurons connect to muscles and organs, directly controlling movements.
  • Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons in the central nervous system (CNS).

Transmission of Impulses

  • Action Potentials: Rapid electrical signals transmitted along neurons.
    • Resting Potential: Neuron at rest, inside negatively charged (~-70 mV). Maintained by ion pumps.
    • Depolarization: Stimulus triggers sodium (Na⁺) channels to open, Na⁺ rushes in, making potential more positive (~+30 mV).
    • Repolarization: Potassium (K⁺) channels open, K⁺ exits, potential returns to negative.
    • Hyperpolarization/Refractory Period: Membrane becomes more negative than resting potential briefly; neuron cannot fire another action potential immediately.
    • Propagation: Action potential travels along the axon as a wave. Myelinated neurons transmit signals faster via saltatory conduction (jumping between nodes of Ranvier).
  • Synaptic Transmission: Electrical signal converted to chemical at synapse.
    • Action potential reaches axon terminal (presynaptic neuron).
    • Voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺) channels open, Ca²⁺ enters terminal.
    • Calcium triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft.
    • Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on postsynaptic membrane and alter its activity(resulting in depolarization or hyperpolarization.
  • Neuromuscular Junction: Similar to synaptic transmission but at muscle cells. Acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter involved. Binding of ACh triggers the muscle action potential leading to contraction via calcium release.
  • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers in the nervous system. Examples including acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA.
  • Acetylcholine: Plays roles in memory (brain) and muscle contractions. Low levels associated with memory issues and muscle disorders.

Reflex Arc

  • Reflex arc: Simplest nerve pathway, often without brain coordination
  • Components: Receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, effector
  • Five-step process: Receptor detection, sensory signal transfer, interneuron signal transfer, motor neuron signal transfer, effector stimulation.

Brain Structure and Function

  • Cerebrum: Largest part; responsible for higher cognitive functions, divided into two hemispheres.
    • Lobes:
      • Frontal Lobe: Motor functions, problem-solving, reasoning, speech.
      • Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing, spatial awareness, touch.
      • Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.
      • Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, memory, speech comprehension
    • Broca's Area: Language production
    • Wernicke's Area: Language comprehension
  • Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance.
  • Brainstem: Connects brain to spinal cord, controls basic life functions. (midbrain, pons, medulla)

Advances in Brain Exploration

  • Imaging techniques (MRI, CAT scan, EEG) provide detailed views of brain structure and activity, aiding diagnosis and treatment of brain injuries and diseases.
  • MRI and CAT scans show brain structures. EEG tracks electrical activity.

Peripheral Nervous System

  • Sympathetic Nervous System: "Fight-or-flight" response, increasing heart rate and breathing rate.
  • Parasympathetic Nervous System: "Rest-and-digest" response, calming body functions.

Neurological Disease (Alzheimer's)

  • Alzheimer's disease: Progressive neurological disorder affecting memory, thinking, and behavior.
  • Causes: Abnormal protein buildup (beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles).
  • Symptoms: Memory loss, confusion, difficulty performing daily tasks, mood changes, impaired judgment.
  • Treatments: No cure, but treatments can slow progression and improve quality of life (cholinesterase inhibitors).

Drug (Cocaine)

  • Cocaine use: Recreational stimulant for euphoria, increased energy, and alertness.
  • Dependence: Repeated use leads to psychological and physical dependence.
  • Effects: Increased heart rate, blood pressure, potential risk of heart attack or stroke. Long-term use causes anxiety, paranoia etc
  • Withdrawal: Fatigue, depression, irritability, cravings

Module 2 - The Endocrine System

  • Endocrine glands release hormones to regulate body functions and maintain homeostasis.
  • Major Glands:
    • Hypothalamus: Links nervous and endocrine systems.
    • Pituitary Gland: "Master gland"; controls other endocrine glands.
    • Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism.
    • Parathyroid Glands: Control calcium levels.
    • Adrenal Glands: Manage stress, blood pressure, metabolism.
    • Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar (insulin, glucagon).
    • Ovaries/Testes: Produce sex hormones.

Hormone Types (Steroid vs. Protein)

  • Steroid Hormones: Lipid-soluble, derived from cholesterol, bind to intracellular receptors, directly affect gene expression. Examples: Cortisol, estrogen, testosterone, aldosterone.
  • Protein/Peptide Hormones: Water-soluble, chains of amino acids, bind to cell surface receptors, use second messenger systems to alter cell activity. Examples: Insulin, growth hormone, adrenaline, glucagon.

Hypothalamus/Pituitary Gland

  • Hypothalamus: Controls pituitary gland via releasing and inhibiting hormones.
  • Releasing Hormones: Stimulate pituitary to release hormones.
  • Inhibiting Hormones: Prevent pituitary from releasing hormones.
  • Pituitary Gland: Divided into anterior and posterior lobes.
    • Anterior Pituitary: Produces and secretes hormones. Examples: Growth Hormone (GH), Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic Hormone, Prolactin, Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
    • Posterior Pituitary: Stores and releases hypothalamic hormones. Examples: Oxytocin, Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH).
  • Importance of Hypothalamus and Pituitary: The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to regulate bodily functions by controlling essential endocrine glands.

Feedback Loops

  • Feedback loops maintain homeostasis.
  • Negative Feedback: A deviation from a set point triggers a response that brings the variable back to normal. Example: Insulin regulating blood glucose levels, thyroid hormone levels.
  • Positive Feedback: Amplifies a reaction until a specific endpoint is reached. Examples: Childbirth.

Endocrine Disruptors

  • Endocrine disruptors: Harmful chemicals that disrupt hormone function.
  • Examples: Phthalates, BPA, pesticides, heavy metals.
  • Potential Problems: Reproductive issues, developmental effects, cancer, metabolic disorders, thyroid problems

Endocrine Diseases

  • Diabetes Mellitus (Type 1 and Type 2): Characterized by high blood sugar (Type 1 autoimmune, Type 2 insulin resistance).
  • Hypothyroidism: Underactive thyroid gland, often caused by autoimmune diseases or iodine deficiency.
  • Cushing's Syndrome: Overproduction of cortisol, often caused by a tumor or corticosteroid drug use.

Module 3 - Reproduction

Meiosis

  • Meiosis reduces chromosome number by half (diploid to haploid). Crucial for sexual reproduction.
  • Results in four non-identical daughter cells. Introduces genetic variation through crossing over and independent assortment, ensuring genetic diversity in offspring.
  • Generates gametes (sperm and egg).

Male and Female Anatomy

  • Male: Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra, penis.
  • Female: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva.

Egg/Sperm Structure and Fertilization

  • Egg: Large cell, contains zona pellucida, cytoplasm, nucleus, and corona radiata.
  • Sperm: Small cell, contains head (nucleus, acrosome), midpiece, and tail (flagellum).
  • Fertilization: Fusion of sperm and egg in fallopian tube to form a zygote. Enzymes in the acrosome help the sperm penetrate the egg.

Feedback Loops for Reproductive Hormones

  • Females: Negative feedback (e.g., estrogen regulates FSH, LH) and positive feedback (e.g., estrogen surge triggers LH surge for ovulation) regulate menstrual cycle.
  • Males: Negative feedback (e.g., testosterone regulates LH, GnRH) maintains testosterone levels.

Menstrual Cycle

  • Cyclical process in females prepping for pregnancy (typically 28 days).
  • Phases: Menstrual, follicular, ovulation, luteal.

STIs and Infertility

  • STIs (e.g., chlamydia, gonorrhea, HPV) can lead to infertility if left untreated.

Embryonic/Fetal Growth and Development

  • Stages: Zygote, embryo (organogenesis), fetus (growth and maturation).
  • Sensitive period for teratogens during embryonic development.

Teratogens

  • Teratogens: Substances causing birth defects.
  • Examples: Drugs, infections, environmental exposures, maternal conditions.
  • Prevention: Avoidance of teratogens, prenatal care, vaccinations.

ART (Assisted Reproductive Technologies)

  • In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI), Egg/Sperm Donation.

Birth Control

  • Oral contraceptives, condoms, intrauterine devices (IUDs).

Module 4 - Genetics

Genetics Terminology

  • Definitions of terms: Gene, allele, genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant, recessive, genetic mutation, carrier, Punnett square, codominance, incomplete dominance, sex-linked genes, genetic drift.

Mendel’s Pea Plant Traits

  • Seven traits of peas studied by Mendel (example traits: seed shape, seed color, height, flower color...).

Monohybrid/Dihybrid Crosses

  • Monohybrid crosses are used to track inheritance patterns for one trait.
  • Dihybrid crosses are used to study inheritance patterns for two traits.

Blood Typing

  • Blood type inheritance pattern.

Human Genome Project

  • The Human Genome Project's aims and achievements.

Sex-Linked Traits (Hemophilia, Color Blindness)

  • Inheritance patterns for sex-linked traits.

Pedigrees/Karyotypes

  • Pedigrees and karyotypes to track genetic traits through generations.

Module 5 - DNA

DNA Structure

  • DNA Structure: Nucleotides (phosphate, sugar, base), base pairing (A-T, C-G), double helix, antiparallel strands.

DNA Replication

  • Enzymes in DNA replication: Helicase, single-strand binding proteins, DNA gyrase, RNA primase, DNA polymerase III, DNA polymerase I, DNA ligase.
  • Process: Unwinding, primer synthesis, elongation, and termination.

DNA vs. RNA

  • Differences in structure and function between DNA and RNA.

Protein Synthesis

  • Transcription: DNA converted to mRNA
  • Translation: mRNA converted to protein.
  • mRNA, tRNA, rRNA's role.

Genetic Engineering and Hemophilia

  • Genetic engineering techniques, including recombinant DNA technology and gene editing.
  • Hemophilia: Causes, symptoms, and treatments.

Mutations and Genetic Diseases

  • Types of mutations: Gene mutations (point mutations, insertions/deletions) and chromosomal mutations (deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations).
  • Effects of mutations on DNA and protein synthesis.

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Description

Test your knowledge on the types of neurons, their functions, and the physiological processes involved in nervous system functions. This quiz covers key concepts such as resting potential, neurotransmitter roles, and the anatomy of the central nervous system.

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