Neuroscience Basics Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which neuron type is responsible for bringing signals into the central nervous system (CNS)?

  • Efferent neurons
  • Motor neurons
  • Interneurons
  • Sensory neurons (correct)
  • Repolarization occurs when sodium (Na⁺) channels open, allowing sodium to flow out of the cell.

    False

    What is the role of interneurons in the nervous system?

    Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons.

    The resting potential of a neuron is approximately ______ mV.

    <p>-70</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their descriptions:

    <p>Resting Potential = Negative charge inside the neuron at rest Depolarization = Positive charge due to Na⁺ influx Repolarization = Return to negative charge due to K⁺ efflux Hyperpolarization = Temporary more negative charge than resting potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of motor neurons?

    <p>Control muscle movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In myelinated neurons, action potentials propagate by moving continuously along the entire length of the axon.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What maintains the resting potential of a neuron?

    <p>The sodium-potassium pump and ion channels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the release of neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron?

    <p>Ca²⁺ influx</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The muscle contraction signal is entirely dependent on sodium channels being opened.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What neurotransmitter is primarily involved in muscle contractions?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ connects the brain to the spinal cord.

    <p>brainstem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components of a reflex arc to their roles:

    <p>Receptor = Detects stimulus Sensory neuron = Transmits information to the spinal cord Interneuron = Processes the information Motor neuron = Carries signals to effectors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe of the cerebrum is primarily responsible for processing visual information?

    <p>Occipital Lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The sympathetic nervous system helps maintain body balance and relaxation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one imaging technique that aids in diagnosing brain injuries.

    <p>MRI or CAT scan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neurotransmitters like __________ carry chemical signals between neurons.

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following neurotransmitters to their associated functions:

    <p>Acetylcholine = Muscle contractions and memory Dopamine = Reward and pleasure GABA = Inhibitory neurotransmitter Serotonin = Mood regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following components is NOT part of the reflex arc?

    <p>Efferent neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cerebellum is responsible for higher cognitive functions like reasoning.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the main functions of the brainstem?

    <p>Regulates heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestive functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ nervous system is responsible for the 'rest and digest' response.

    <p>parasympathetic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of fetal development during the third trimester?

    <p>Growth and maturation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Teratogens can lead to developmental delays or cognitive impairments.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one example of a maternal condition that can act as a teratogen.

    <p>Poorly controlled diabetes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    One form of assisted reproductive technology is __________, where eggs are fertilized in a laboratory dish.

    <p>In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following ART procedures with their descriptions:

    <p>In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) = Eggs are retrieved, fertilized, and transferred to the uterus. Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) = Direct injection of sperm into an egg. Egg or Sperm Donation = Using donor gametes for fertilization. Intrauterine Insemination (IUI) = Sperm is directly injected into the uterus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method of birth control is approximately 99% effective when taken correctly?

    <p>Oral Contraceptives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Condoms are 100% effective at preventing pregnancy.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does genotype represent in genetics?

    <p>The genetic makeup of an organism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is primarily responsible for stimulating ovulation?

    <p>LH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The menstrual cycle lasts exactly 28 days for everyone.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A __________ is a tool used to predict possible genetic outcomes of a cross between two organisms.

    <p>Punnett Square</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the genetics terms with their definitions:

    <p>Allele = Different versions of a gene. Phenotype = Observable characteristics of an organism. Homozygous = Two identical alleles for a particular gene. Dominant = An allele that expresses its trait with one copy present.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name the hormone released by the pituitary gland that promotes the growth of ovarian follicles.

    <p>FSH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In incomplete dominance, what is typically observed?

    <p>A blend of the two alleles' phenotypes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The corpus luteum secretes __________ to prepare the uterus for possible pregnancy.

    <p>progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sex-linked genes are located on the autosomes, not sex chromosomes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following STIs with their symptoms:

    <p>Chlamydia = Often asymptomatic, painful urination Gonorrhea = Painful urination, discharge HPV = Genital warts, mostly asymptomatic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect do rising estrogen levels have during the follicular phase?

    <p>Inhibit further release of GnRH, LH, and FSH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the random changes in allele frequencies in a population over time due to chance events?

    <p>Genetic Drift</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Round seeds are dominant over __________ seeds in Mendel's pea plants.

    <p>wrinkled</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Testosterone has a positive feedback effect on GnRH production.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of the menstrual cycle does ovulation occur?

    <p>Ovulation phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks down, leading to a drop in __________ and __________ levels.

    <p>progesterone, estrogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following hormones to their sources:

    <p>GnRH = Hypothalamus LH = Pituitary gland Estrogen = Ovaries Testosterone = Testes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of FSH in the male reproductive system?

    <p>Promoting sperm production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    HPV has been proven to be curable with antibiotics.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What complication can untreated gonorrhea cause in women?

    <p>Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ stage is when major organs begin forming in the embryo.

    <p>embryonic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the pituitary gland?

    <p>Regulating other endocrine glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus releases hormones that stimulate the adrenal glands to produce cortisol.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormonal feedback mechanism is primarily involved in blood sugar regulation?

    <p>Negative Feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Insulin helps to lower blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into __________.

    <p>cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each hormone to its corresponding gland:

    <p>TSH = Pituitary gland Insulin = Pancreas ACTH = Pituitary gland Thyroxine (T4) = Thyroid gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a potential health problem caused by endocrine disruptors?

    <p>Infertility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Positive feedback is the most common mechanism for maintaining homeostasis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one endocrine disease related to insulin deficiency.

    <p>Diabetes Mellitus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hormone __________ is released by the pancreas to help lower blood sugar levels.

    <p>Insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following diseases with their characteristics:

    <p>Type 1 Diabetes = Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing cells Type 2 Diabetes = Insulin resistance often due to lifestyle factors Hypothyroidism = Underactive thyroid gland Cushing's Syndrome = Excessive cortisol production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for stimulating the thyroid gland?

    <p>TSH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Phthalates are a type of heavy metal that can act as endocrine disruptors.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is marked by extreme fatigue and increased thirst due to high blood sugar levels?

    <p>Diabetes Mellitus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cortisol is released by the adrenal glands in response to __________.

    <p>stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step of the translation process?

    <p>Ribosome binding to the mRNA start codon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gene therapy can provide a permanent solution for some genetic disorders.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define mutations in genetics.

    <p>Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence that can affect protein structure or function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hemophilia is caused by mutations in genes that produce __________.

    <p>clotting factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following RNA types with their roles:

    <p>mRNA = Carries genetic code to the ribosome tRNA = Delivers amino acids to the ribosome rRNA = Forms part of the ribosome structure siRNA = Regulates gene expression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes point mutations?

    <p>Alters a single nucleotide in the DNA sequence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Joint bleeding is not a symptom of hemophilia.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of tRNA in the translation process?

    <p>tRNA delivers specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the mRNA codons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A mutation can lead to a __________ protein if it results in an incorrect amino acid sequence.

    <p>nonfunctional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is NOT commonly used in genetic engineering?

    <p>Chromosomal duplication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic symptom of Alzheimer's disease?

    <p>Memory loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cocaine is classified as a depressant drug.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of insulin in the body?

    <p>To lower blood sugar levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ________ gland is often referred to as the 'master gland' because it controls other endocrine glands.

    <p>pituitary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following endocrine glands with their primary functions:

    <p>Hypothalamus = Links the nervous and endocrine systems Adrenal Glands = Releases stress hormones Thyroid Gland = Regulates metabolism Pancreas = Controls blood sugar levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are beta-amyloid plaques associated with?

    <p>Alzheimer's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Steroid hormones are made from amino acids.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one effect of cocaine use.

    <p>Increased energy or euphoria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The posterior pituitary releases ________ and ________ hormones.

    <p>oxytocin, antidiuretic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following hormones with their gland of origin:

    <p>Cortisol = Adrenal Glands Insulin = Pancreas Estrogen = Ovaries Testosterone = Testes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hormone binds to intracellular receptors?

    <p>Steroid hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cocaine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety and irritability.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does dopamine play in the effects of cocaine?

    <p>Dopamine increase leads to euphoria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cholinesterase inhibitors are used in the treatment of ________ disease.

    <p>Alzheimer's</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following glands is responsible for regulating stress responses?

    <p>Adrenal Glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which symptom is NOT associated with hypothyroidism?

    <p>High blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Meiosis results in two identical daughter cells.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of thyroxine in the body?

    <p>To regulate metabolic processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cushing's Syndrome is caused by the overproduction of __________.

    <p>cortisol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following female reproductive structures with their functions:

    <p>Ovaries = Produce eggs and hormones Fallopian Tubes = Transport eggs to the uterus Uterus = Site of embryo implantation Vagina = Passage for childbirth and menstrual flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which is a treatment option for Cushing's Syndrome caused by a tumor?

    <p>Surgical removal of the tumor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Eggs are the smallest cells in the human body.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What event marks the beginning of human life?

    <p>Fertilization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During prophase I of meiosis, genetic diversity is increased through __________.

    <p>crossing over</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the zona pellucida?

    <p>Protect the egg and bind sperm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The male reproductive system primarily produces eggs.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the corpus luteum if pregnancy does not occur?

    <p>It breaks down.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The three parts of the uterus are the endometrium, myometrium, and __________.

    <p>cervix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What regulates hormone production in the female menstrual cycle?

    <p>Both positive and negative feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary goal of the Human Genome Project?

    <p>To identify all human genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    DNA is a single-stranded molecule.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA?

    <p>Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ________ is a diagram that shows the inheritance of a trait through generations.

    <p>pedigree</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following enzymes with their roles in DNA replication:

    <p>Helicase = Unwinds the DNA helix DNA Polymerase III = Adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strand DNA Ligase = Seals gaps between DNA fragments RNA Primase = Synthesizes RNA primer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a step in DNA replication?

    <p>Protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Each DNA molecule consists of one old strand and one new strand after replication.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of RNA?

    <p>Involved in protein synthesis and gene expression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During transcription, RNA polymerase synthesizes ________ from the DNA template.

    <p>mRNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of genetic trait is hemophilia?

    <p>Sex-linked recessive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Karyotypes can be used to identify chromosomal abnormalities.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name two key achievements of the Human Genome Project.

    <p>Gene mapping and understanding genetic variability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Adenine pairs with ________ in DNA base pairing.

    <p>Thymine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Module 1 - The Nervous System

    • The nervous system, working with the endocrine system, regulates internal and external stimuli for homeostasis.
    • The peripheral nervous system (PNS) contains sensory neurons (bringing signals into the CNS) and motor neurons (carrying signals out).
    • Sensory neurons transmit signals from environmental input (like touching a hot surface).
    • Motor neurons connect to muscles and organs, directly controlling movements.
    • Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons in the central nervous system (CNS).

    Transmission of Impulses

    • Action Potentials: Rapid electrical signals transmitted along neurons.
      • Resting Potential: Neuron at rest, inside negatively charged (~-70 mV). Maintained by ion pumps.
      • Depolarization: Stimulus triggers sodium (Na⁺) channels to open, Na⁺ rushes in, making potential more positive (~+30 mV).
      • Repolarization: Potassium (K⁺) channels open, K⁺ exits, potential returns to negative.
      • Hyperpolarization/Refractory Period: Membrane becomes more negative than resting potential briefly; neuron cannot fire another action potential immediately.
      • Propagation: Action potential travels along the axon as a wave. Myelinated neurons transmit signals faster via saltatory conduction (jumping between nodes of Ranvier).
    • Synaptic Transmission: Electrical signal converted to chemical at synapse.
      • Action potential reaches axon terminal (presynaptic neuron).
      • Voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺) channels open, Ca²⁺ enters terminal.
      • Calcium triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft.
      • Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on postsynaptic membrane and alter its activity(resulting in depolarization or hyperpolarization.
    • Neuromuscular Junction: Similar to synaptic transmission but at muscle cells. Acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter involved. Binding of ACh triggers the muscle action potential leading to contraction via calcium release.
    • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers in the nervous system. Examples including acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA.
    • Acetylcholine: Plays roles in memory (brain) and muscle contractions. Low levels associated with memory issues and muscle disorders.

    Reflex Arc

    • Reflex arc: Simplest nerve pathway, often without brain coordination
    • Components: Receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, effector
    • Five-step process: Receptor detection, sensory signal transfer, interneuron signal transfer, motor neuron signal transfer, effector stimulation.

    Brain Structure and Function

    • Cerebrum: Largest part; responsible for higher cognitive functions, divided into two hemispheres.
      • Lobes:
        • Frontal Lobe: Motor functions, problem-solving, reasoning, speech.
        • Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing, spatial awareness, touch.
        • Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.
        • Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, memory, speech comprehension
      • Broca's Area: Language production
      • Wernicke's Area: Language comprehension
    • Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance.
    • Brainstem: Connects brain to spinal cord, controls basic life functions. (midbrain, pons, medulla)

    Advances in Brain Exploration

    • Imaging techniques (MRI, CAT scan, EEG) provide detailed views of brain structure and activity, aiding diagnosis and treatment of brain injuries and diseases.
    • MRI and CAT scans show brain structures. EEG tracks electrical activity.

    Peripheral Nervous System

    • Sympathetic Nervous System: "Fight-or-flight" response, increasing heart rate and breathing rate.
    • Parasympathetic Nervous System: "Rest-and-digest" response, calming body functions.

    Neurological Disease (Alzheimer's)

    • Alzheimer's disease: Progressive neurological disorder affecting memory, thinking, and behavior.
    • Causes: Abnormal protein buildup (beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles).
    • Symptoms: Memory loss, confusion, difficulty performing daily tasks, mood changes, impaired judgment.
    • Treatments: No cure, but treatments can slow progression and improve quality of life (cholinesterase inhibitors).

    Drug (Cocaine)

    • Cocaine use: Recreational stimulant for euphoria, increased energy, and alertness.
    • Dependence: Repeated use leads to psychological and physical dependence.
    • Effects: Increased heart rate, blood pressure, potential risk of heart attack or stroke. Long-term use causes anxiety, paranoia etc
    • Withdrawal: Fatigue, depression, irritability, cravings

    Module 2 - The Endocrine System

    • Endocrine glands release hormones to regulate body functions and maintain homeostasis.
    • Major Glands:
      • Hypothalamus: Links nervous and endocrine systems.
      • Pituitary Gland: "Master gland"; controls other endocrine glands.
      • Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism.
      • Parathyroid Glands: Control calcium levels.
      • Adrenal Glands: Manage stress, blood pressure, metabolism.
      • Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar (insulin, glucagon).
      • Ovaries/Testes: Produce sex hormones.

    Hormone Types (Steroid vs. Protein)

    • Steroid Hormones: Lipid-soluble, derived from cholesterol, bind to intracellular receptors, directly affect gene expression. Examples: Cortisol, estrogen, testosterone, aldosterone.
    • Protein/Peptide Hormones: Water-soluble, chains of amino acids, bind to cell surface receptors, use second messenger systems to alter cell activity. Examples: Insulin, growth hormone, adrenaline, glucagon.

    Hypothalamus/Pituitary Gland

    • Hypothalamus: Controls pituitary gland via releasing and inhibiting hormones.
    • Releasing Hormones: Stimulate pituitary to release hormones.
    • Inhibiting Hormones: Prevent pituitary from releasing hormones.
    • Pituitary Gland: Divided into anterior and posterior lobes.
      • Anterior Pituitary: Produces and secretes hormones. Examples: Growth Hormone (GH), Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic Hormone, Prolactin, Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
      • Posterior Pituitary: Stores and releases hypothalamic hormones. Examples: Oxytocin, Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH).
    • Importance of Hypothalamus and Pituitary: The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to regulate bodily functions by controlling essential endocrine glands.

    Feedback Loops

    • Feedback loops maintain homeostasis.
    • Negative Feedback: A deviation from a set point triggers a response that brings the variable back to normal. Example: Insulin regulating blood glucose levels, thyroid hormone levels.
    • Positive Feedback: Amplifies a reaction until a specific endpoint is reached. Examples: Childbirth.

    Endocrine Disruptors

    • Endocrine disruptors: Harmful chemicals that disrupt hormone function.
    • Examples: Phthalates, BPA, pesticides, heavy metals.
    • Potential Problems: Reproductive issues, developmental effects, cancer, metabolic disorders, thyroid problems

    Endocrine Diseases

    • Diabetes Mellitus (Type 1 and Type 2): Characterized by high blood sugar (Type 1 autoimmune, Type 2 insulin resistance).
    • Hypothyroidism: Underactive thyroid gland, often caused by autoimmune diseases or iodine deficiency.
    • Cushing's Syndrome: Overproduction of cortisol, often caused by a tumor or corticosteroid drug use.

    Module 3 - Reproduction

    Meiosis

    • Meiosis reduces chromosome number by half (diploid to haploid). Crucial for sexual reproduction.
    • Results in four non-identical daughter cells. Introduces genetic variation through crossing over and independent assortment, ensuring genetic diversity in offspring.
    • Generates gametes (sperm and egg).

    Male and Female Anatomy

    • Male: Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra, penis.
    • Female: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva.

    Egg/Sperm Structure and Fertilization

    • Egg: Large cell, contains zona pellucida, cytoplasm, nucleus, and corona radiata.
    • Sperm: Small cell, contains head (nucleus, acrosome), midpiece, and tail (flagellum).
    • Fertilization: Fusion of sperm and egg in fallopian tube to form a zygote. Enzymes in the acrosome help the sperm penetrate the egg.

    Feedback Loops for Reproductive Hormones

    • Females: Negative feedback (e.g., estrogen regulates FSH, LH) and positive feedback (e.g., estrogen surge triggers LH surge for ovulation) regulate menstrual cycle.
    • Males: Negative feedback (e.g., testosterone regulates LH, GnRH) maintains testosterone levels.

    Menstrual Cycle

    • Cyclical process in females prepping for pregnancy (typically 28 days).
    • Phases: Menstrual, follicular, ovulation, luteal.

    STIs and Infertility

    • STIs (e.g., chlamydia, gonorrhea, HPV) can lead to infertility if left untreated.

    Embryonic/Fetal Growth and Development

    • Stages: Zygote, embryo (organogenesis), fetus (growth and maturation).
    • Sensitive period for teratogens during embryonic development.

    Teratogens

    • Teratogens: Substances causing birth defects.
    • Examples: Drugs, infections, environmental exposures, maternal conditions.
    • Prevention: Avoidance of teratogens, prenatal care, vaccinations.

    ART (Assisted Reproductive Technologies)

    • In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI), Egg/Sperm Donation.

    Birth Control

    • Oral contraceptives, condoms, intrauterine devices (IUDs).

    Module 4 - Genetics

    Genetics Terminology

    • Definitions of terms: Gene, allele, genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant, recessive, genetic mutation, carrier, Punnett square, codominance, incomplete dominance, sex-linked genes, genetic drift.

    Mendel’s Pea Plant Traits

    • Seven traits of peas studied by Mendel (example traits: seed shape, seed color, height, flower color...).

    Monohybrid/Dihybrid Crosses

    • Monohybrid crosses are used to track inheritance patterns for one trait.
    • Dihybrid crosses are used to study inheritance patterns for two traits.

    Blood Typing

    • Blood type inheritance pattern.

    Human Genome Project

    • The Human Genome Project's aims and achievements.

    Sex-Linked Traits (Hemophilia, Color Blindness)

    • Inheritance patterns for sex-linked traits.

    Pedigrees/Karyotypes

    • Pedigrees and karyotypes to track genetic traits through generations.

    Module 5 - DNA

    DNA Structure

    • DNA Structure: Nucleotides (phosphate, sugar, base), base pairing (A-T, C-G), double helix, antiparallel strands.

    DNA Replication

    • Enzymes in DNA replication: Helicase, single-strand binding proteins, DNA gyrase, RNA primase, DNA polymerase III, DNA polymerase I, DNA ligase.
    • Process: Unwinding, primer synthesis, elongation, and termination.

    DNA vs. RNA

    • Differences in structure and function between DNA and RNA.

    Protein Synthesis

    • Transcription: DNA converted to mRNA
    • Translation: mRNA converted to protein.
    • mRNA, tRNA, rRNA's role.

    Genetic Engineering and Hemophilia

    • Genetic engineering techniques, including recombinant DNA technology and gene editing.
    • Hemophilia: Causes, symptoms, and treatments.

    Mutations and Genetic Diseases

    • Types of mutations: Gene mutations (point mutations, insertions/deletions) and chromosomal mutations (deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations).
    • Effects of mutations on DNA and protein synthesis.

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    Test your knowledge on the types of neurons, their functions, and the physiological processes involved in nervous system functions. This quiz covers key concepts such as resting potential, neurotransmitter roles, and the anatomy of the central nervous system.

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