Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which neuron type is responsible for bringing signals into the central nervous system (CNS)?
Which neuron type is responsible for bringing signals into the central nervous system (CNS)?
Repolarization occurs when sodium (Na⁺) channels open, allowing sodium to flow out of the cell.
Repolarization occurs when sodium (Na⁺) channels open, allowing sodium to flow out of the cell.
False
What is the role of interneurons in the nervous system?
What is the role of interneurons in the nervous system?
Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons.
The resting potential of a neuron is approximately ______ mV.
The resting potential of a neuron is approximately ______ mV.
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Match the following terms with their descriptions:
Match the following terms with their descriptions:
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What is the primary function of motor neurons?
What is the primary function of motor neurons?
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In myelinated neurons, action potentials propagate by moving continuously along the entire length of the axon.
In myelinated neurons, action potentials propagate by moving continuously along the entire length of the axon.
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What maintains the resting potential of a neuron?
What maintains the resting potential of a neuron?
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What triggers the release of neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron?
What triggers the release of neurotransmitters in the presynaptic neuron?
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The muscle contraction signal is entirely dependent on sodium channels being opened.
The muscle contraction signal is entirely dependent on sodium channels being opened.
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What neurotransmitter is primarily involved in muscle contractions?
What neurotransmitter is primarily involved in muscle contractions?
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The __________ connects the brain to the spinal cord.
The __________ connects the brain to the spinal cord.
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Match the following components of a reflex arc to their roles:
Match the following components of a reflex arc to their roles:
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Which lobe of the cerebrum is primarily responsible for processing visual information?
Which lobe of the cerebrum is primarily responsible for processing visual information?
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The sympathetic nervous system helps maintain body balance and relaxation.
The sympathetic nervous system helps maintain body balance and relaxation.
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Name one imaging technique that aids in diagnosing brain injuries.
Name one imaging technique that aids in diagnosing brain injuries.
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Neurotransmitters like __________ carry chemical signals between neurons.
Neurotransmitters like __________ carry chemical signals between neurons.
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Match the following neurotransmitters to their associated functions:
Match the following neurotransmitters to their associated functions:
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Which of the following components is NOT part of the reflex arc?
Which of the following components is NOT part of the reflex arc?
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The cerebellum is responsible for higher cognitive functions like reasoning.
The cerebellum is responsible for higher cognitive functions like reasoning.
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What are the main functions of the brainstem?
What are the main functions of the brainstem?
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The __________ nervous system is responsible for the 'rest and digest' response.
The __________ nervous system is responsible for the 'rest and digest' response.
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What is the main focus of fetal development during the third trimester?
What is the main focus of fetal development during the third trimester?
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Teratogens can lead to developmental delays or cognitive impairments.
Teratogens can lead to developmental delays or cognitive impairments.
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Name one example of a maternal condition that can act as a teratogen.
Name one example of a maternal condition that can act as a teratogen.
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One form of assisted reproductive technology is __________, where eggs are fertilized in a laboratory dish.
One form of assisted reproductive technology is __________, where eggs are fertilized in a laboratory dish.
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Match the following ART procedures with their descriptions:
Match the following ART procedures with their descriptions:
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Which method of birth control is approximately 99% effective when taken correctly?
Which method of birth control is approximately 99% effective when taken correctly?
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Condoms are 100% effective at preventing pregnancy.
Condoms are 100% effective at preventing pregnancy.
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What does genotype represent in genetics?
What does genotype represent in genetics?
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What hormone is primarily responsible for stimulating ovulation?
What hormone is primarily responsible for stimulating ovulation?
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The menstrual cycle lasts exactly 28 days for everyone.
The menstrual cycle lasts exactly 28 days for everyone.
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A __________ is a tool used to predict possible genetic outcomes of a cross between two organisms.
A __________ is a tool used to predict possible genetic outcomes of a cross between two organisms.
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Match the genetics terms with their definitions:
Match the genetics terms with their definitions:
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Name the hormone released by the pituitary gland that promotes the growth of ovarian follicles.
Name the hormone released by the pituitary gland that promotes the growth of ovarian follicles.
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In incomplete dominance, what is typically observed?
In incomplete dominance, what is typically observed?
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The corpus luteum secretes __________ to prepare the uterus for possible pregnancy.
The corpus luteum secretes __________ to prepare the uterus for possible pregnancy.
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Sex-linked genes are located on the autosomes, not sex chromosomes.
Sex-linked genes are located on the autosomes, not sex chromosomes.
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Match the following STIs with their symptoms:
Match the following STIs with their symptoms:
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What effect do rising estrogen levels have during the follicular phase?
What effect do rising estrogen levels have during the follicular phase?
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What term describes the random changes in allele frequencies in a population over time due to chance events?
What term describes the random changes in allele frequencies in a population over time due to chance events?
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Round seeds are dominant over __________ seeds in Mendel's pea plants.
Round seeds are dominant over __________ seeds in Mendel's pea plants.
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Testosterone has a positive feedback effect on GnRH production.
Testosterone has a positive feedback effect on GnRH production.
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During which phase of the menstrual cycle does ovulation occur?
During which phase of the menstrual cycle does ovulation occur?
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If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks down, leading to a drop in __________ and __________ levels.
If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks down, leading to a drop in __________ and __________ levels.
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Match the following hormones to their sources:
Match the following hormones to their sources:
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What is the primary role of FSH in the male reproductive system?
What is the primary role of FSH in the male reproductive system?
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HPV has been proven to be curable with antibiotics.
HPV has been proven to be curable with antibiotics.
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What complication can untreated gonorrhea cause in women?
What complication can untreated gonorrhea cause in women?
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The __________ stage is when major organs begin forming in the embryo.
The __________ stage is when major organs begin forming in the embryo.
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What is the primary function of the pituitary gland?
What is the primary function of the pituitary gland?
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The hypothalamus releases hormones that stimulate the adrenal glands to produce cortisol.
The hypothalamus releases hormones that stimulate the adrenal glands to produce cortisol.
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What hormonal feedback mechanism is primarily involved in blood sugar regulation?
What hormonal feedback mechanism is primarily involved in blood sugar regulation?
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Insulin helps to lower blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into __________.
Insulin helps to lower blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into __________.
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Match each hormone to its corresponding gland:
Match each hormone to its corresponding gland:
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Which of the following is a potential health problem caused by endocrine disruptors?
Which of the following is a potential health problem caused by endocrine disruptors?
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Positive feedback is the most common mechanism for maintaining homeostasis.
Positive feedback is the most common mechanism for maintaining homeostasis.
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Name one endocrine disease related to insulin deficiency.
Name one endocrine disease related to insulin deficiency.
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The hormone __________ is released by the pancreas to help lower blood sugar levels.
The hormone __________ is released by the pancreas to help lower blood sugar levels.
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Match the following diseases with their characteristics:
Match the following diseases with their characteristics:
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Which hormone is responsible for stimulating the thyroid gland?
Which hormone is responsible for stimulating the thyroid gland?
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Phthalates are a type of heavy metal that can act as endocrine disruptors.
Phthalates are a type of heavy metal that can act as endocrine disruptors.
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What condition is marked by extreme fatigue and increased thirst due to high blood sugar levels?
What condition is marked by extreme fatigue and increased thirst due to high blood sugar levels?
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Cortisol is released by the adrenal glands in response to __________.
Cortisol is released by the adrenal glands in response to __________.
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What is the first step of the translation process?
What is the first step of the translation process?
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Gene therapy can provide a permanent solution for some genetic disorders.
Gene therapy can provide a permanent solution for some genetic disorders.
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Define mutations in genetics.
Define mutations in genetics.
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Hemophilia is caused by mutations in genes that produce __________.
Hemophilia is caused by mutations in genes that produce __________.
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Match the following RNA types with their roles:
Match the following RNA types with their roles:
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Which of the following best describes point mutations?
Which of the following best describes point mutations?
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Joint bleeding is not a symptom of hemophilia.
Joint bleeding is not a symptom of hemophilia.
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What is the role of tRNA in the translation process?
What is the role of tRNA in the translation process?
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A mutation can lead to a __________ protein if it results in an incorrect amino acid sequence.
A mutation can lead to a __________ protein if it results in an incorrect amino acid sequence.
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Which method is NOT commonly used in genetic engineering?
Which method is NOT commonly used in genetic engineering?
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What is a characteristic symptom of Alzheimer's disease?
What is a characteristic symptom of Alzheimer's disease?
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Cocaine is classified as a depressant drug.
Cocaine is classified as a depressant drug.
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What is the primary function of insulin in the body?
What is the primary function of insulin in the body?
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The ________ gland is often referred to as the 'master gland' because it controls other endocrine glands.
The ________ gland is often referred to as the 'master gland' because it controls other endocrine glands.
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Match the following endocrine glands with their primary functions:
Match the following endocrine glands with their primary functions:
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What are beta-amyloid plaques associated with?
What are beta-amyloid plaques associated with?
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Steroid hormones are made from amino acids.
Steroid hormones are made from amino acids.
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Name one effect of cocaine use.
Name one effect of cocaine use.
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The posterior pituitary releases ________ and ________ hormones.
The posterior pituitary releases ________ and ________ hormones.
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Match the following hormones with their gland of origin:
Match the following hormones with their gland of origin:
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What type of hormone binds to intracellular receptors?
What type of hormone binds to intracellular receptors?
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Cocaine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety and irritability.
Cocaine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety and irritability.
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What role does dopamine play in the effects of cocaine?
What role does dopamine play in the effects of cocaine?
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Cholinesterase inhibitors are used in the treatment of ________ disease.
Cholinesterase inhibitors are used in the treatment of ________ disease.
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Which of the following glands is responsible for regulating stress responses?
Which of the following glands is responsible for regulating stress responses?
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Which symptom is NOT associated with hypothyroidism?
Which symptom is NOT associated with hypothyroidism?
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Meiosis results in two identical daughter cells.
Meiosis results in two identical daughter cells.
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What is the primary function of thyroxine in the body?
What is the primary function of thyroxine in the body?
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Cushing's Syndrome is caused by the overproduction of __________.
Cushing's Syndrome is caused by the overproduction of __________.
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Match the following female reproductive structures with their functions:
Match the following female reproductive structures with their functions:
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Which is a treatment option for Cushing's Syndrome caused by a tumor?
Which is a treatment option for Cushing's Syndrome caused by a tumor?
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Eggs are the smallest cells in the human body.
Eggs are the smallest cells in the human body.
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What event marks the beginning of human life?
What event marks the beginning of human life?
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During prophase I of meiosis, genetic diversity is increased through __________.
During prophase I of meiosis, genetic diversity is increased through __________.
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What is the primary role of the zona pellucida?
What is the primary role of the zona pellucida?
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The male reproductive system primarily produces eggs.
The male reproductive system primarily produces eggs.
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What happens to the corpus luteum if pregnancy does not occur?
What happens to the corpus luteum if pregnancy does not occur?
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The three parts of the uterus are the endometrium, myometrium, and __________.
The three parts of the uterus are the endometrium, myometrium, and __________.
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What regulates hormone production in the female menstrual cycle?
What regulates hormone production in the female menstrual cycle?
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What was the primary goal of the Human Genome Project?
What was the primary goal of the Human Genome Project?
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DNA is a single-stranded molecule.
DNA is a single-stranded molecule.
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What are the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA?
What are the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA?
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The ________ is a diagram that shows the inheritance of a trait through generations.
The ________ is a diagram that shows the inheritance of a trait through generations.
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Match the following enzymes with their roles in DNA replication:
Match the following enzymes with their roles in DNA replication:
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Which of the following is NOT a step in DNA replication?
Which of the following is NOT a step in DNA replication?
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Each DNA molecule consists of one old strand and one new strand after replication.
Each DNA molecule consists of one old strand and one new strand after replication.
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What is the main function of RNA?
What is the main function of RNA?
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During transcription, RNA polymerase synthesizes ________ from the DNA template.
During transcription, RNA polymerase synthesizes ________ from the DNA template.
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What type of genetic trait is hemophilia?
What type of genetic trait is hemophilia?
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Karyotypes can be used to identify chromosomal abnormalities.
Karyotypes can be used to identify chromosomal abnormalities.
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Name two key achievements of the Human Genome Project.
Name two key achievements of the Human Genome Project.
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Adenine pairs with ________ in DNA base pairing.
Adenine pairs with ________ in DNA base pairing.
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Study Notes
Module 1 - The Nervous System
- The nervous system, working with the endocrine system, regulates internal and external stimuli for homeostasis.
- The peripheral nervous system (PNS) contains sensory neurons (bringing signals into the CNS) and motor neurons (carrying signals out).
- Sensory neurons transmit signals from environmental input (like touching a hot surface).
- Motor neurons connect to muscles and organs, directly controlling movements.
- Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons in the central nervous system (CNS).
Transmission of Impulses
-
Action Potentials: Rapid electrical signals transmitted along neurons.
- Resting Potential: Neuron at rest, inside negatively charged (~-70 mV). Maintained by ion pumps.
- Depolarization: Stimulus triggers sodium (Na⁺) channels to open, Na⁺ rushes in, making potential more positive (~+30 mV).
- Repolarization: Potassium (K⁺) channels open, K⁺ exits, potential returns to negative.
- Hyperpolarization/Refractory Period: Membrane becomes more negative than resting potential briefly; neuron cannot fire another action potential immediately.
- Propagation: Action potential travels along the axon as a wave. Myelinated neurons transmit signals faster via saltatory conduction (jumping between nodes of Ranvier).
-
Synaptic Transmission: Electrical signal converted to chemical at synapse.
- Action potential reaches axon terminal (presynaptic neuron).
- Voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺) channels open, Ca²⁺ enters terminal.
- Calcium triggers neurotransmitter release into synaptic cleft.
- Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on postsynaptic membrane and alter its activity(resulting in depolarization or hyperpolarization.
- Neuromuscular Junction: Similar to synaptic transmission but at muscle cells. Acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter involved. Binding of ACh triggers the muscle action potential leading to contraction via calcium release.
- Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers in the nervous system. Examples including acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA.
- Acetylcholine: Plays roles in memory (brain) and muscle contractions. Low levels associated with memory issues and muscle disorders.
Reflex Arc
- Reflex arc: Simplest nerve pathway, often without brain coordination
- Components: Receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, effector
- Five-step process: Receptor detection, sensory signal transfer, interneuron signal transfer, motor neuron signal transfer, effector stimulation.
Brain Structure and Function
-
Cerebrum: Largest part; responsible for higher cognitive functions, divided into two hemispheres.
-
Lobes:
- Frontal Lobe: Motor functions, problem-solving, reasoning, speech.
- Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing, spatial awareness, touch.
- Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.
- Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, memory, speech comprehension
- Broca's Area: Language production
- Wernicke's Area: Language comprehension
-
Lobes:
- Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance.
- Brainstem: Connects brain to spinal cord, controls basic life functions. (midbrain, pons, medulla)
Advances in Brain Exploration
- Imaging techniques (MRI, CAT scan, EEG) provide detailed views of brain structure and activity, aiding diagnosis and treatment of brain injuries and diseases.
- MRI and CAT scans show brain structures. EEG tracks electrical activity.
Peripheral Nervous System
- Sympathetic Nervous System: "Fight-or-flight" response, increasing heart rate and breathing rate.
- Parasympathetic Nervous System: "Rest-and-digest" response, calming body functions.
Neurological Disease (Alzheimer's)
- Alzheimer's disease: Progressive neurological disorder affecting memory, thinking, and behavior.
- Causes: Abnormal protein buildup (beta-amyloid plaques and tau tangles).
- Symptoms: Memory loss, confusion, difficulty performing daily tasks, mood changes, impaired judgment.
- Treatments: No cure, but treatments can slow progression and improve quality of life (cholinesterase inhibitors).
Drug (Cocaine)
- Cocaine use: Recreational stimulant for euphoria, increased energy, and alertness.
- Dependence: Repeated use leads to psychological and physical dependence.
- Effects: Increased heart rate, blood pressure, potential risk of heart attack or stroke. Long-term use causes anxiety, paranoia etc
- Withdrawal: Fatigue, depression, irritability, cravings
Module 2 - The Endocrine System
- Endocrine glands release hormones to regulate body functions and maintain homeostasis.
-
Major Glands:
- Hypothalamus: Links nervous and endocrine systems.
- Pituitary Gland: "Master gland"; controls other endocrine glands.
- Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism.
- Parathyroid Glands: Control calcium levels.
- Adrenal Glands: Manage stress, blood pressure, metabolism.
- Pancreas: Regulates blood sugar (insulin, glucagon).
- Ovaries/Testes: Produce sex hormones.
Hormone Types (Steroid vs. Protein)
- Steroid Hormones: Lipid-soluble, derived from cholesterol, bind to intracellular receptors, directly affect gene expression. Examples: Cortisol, estrogen, testosterone, aldosterone.
- Protein/Peptide Hormones: Water-soluble, chains of amino acids, bind to cell surface receptors, use second messenger systems to alter cell activity. Examples: Insulin, growth hormone, adrenaline, glucagon.
Hypothalamus/Pituitary Gland
- Hypothalamus: Controls pituitary gland via releasing and inhibiting hormones.
- Releasing Hormones: Stimulate pituitary to release hormones.
- Inhibiting Hormones: Prevent pituitary from releasing hormones.
-
Pituitary Gland: Divided into anterior and posterior lobes.
- Anterior Pituitary: Produces and secretes hormones. Examples: Growth Hormone (GH), Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic Hormone, Prolactin, Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
- Posterior Pituitary: Stores and releases hypothalamic hormones. Examples: Oxytocin, Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH).
- Importance of Hypothalamus and Pituitary: The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to regulate bodily functions by controlling essential endocrine glands.
Feedback Loops
- Feedback loops maintain homeostasis.
- Negative Feedback: A deviation from a set point triggers a response that brings the variable back to normal. Example: Insulin regulating blood glucose levels, thyroid hormone levels.
- Positive Feedback: Amplifies a reaction until a specific endpoint is reached. Examples: Childbirth.
Endocrine Disruptors
- Endocrine disruptors: Harmful chemicals that disrupt hormone function.
- Examples: Phthalates, BPA, pesticides, heavy metals.
- Potential Problems: Reproductive issues, developmental effects, cancer, metabolic disorders, thyroid problems
Endocrine Diseases
- Diabetes Mellitus (Type 1 and Type 2): Characterized by high blood sugar (Type 1 autoimmune, Type 2 insulin resistance).
- Hypothyroidism: Underactive thyroid gland, often caused by autoimmune diseases or iodine deficiency.
- Cushing's Syndrome: Overproduction of cortisol, often caused by a tumor or corticosteroid drug use.
Module 3 - Reproduction
Meiosis
- Meiosis reduces chromosome number by half (diploid to haploid). Crucial for sexual reproduction.
- Results in four non-identical daughter cells. Introduces genetic variation through crossing over and independent assortment, ensuring genetic diversity in offspring.
- Generates gametes (sperm and egg).
Male and Female Anatomy
- Male: Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra, penis.
- Female: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva.
Egg/Sperm Structure and Fertilization
- Egg: Large cell, contains zona pellucida, cytoplasm, nucleus, and corona radiata.
- Sperm: Small cell, contains head (nucleus, acrosome), midpiece, and tail (flagellum).
- Fertilization: Fusion of sperm and egg in fallopian tube to form a zygote. Enzymes in the acrosome help the sperm penetrate the egg.
Feedback Loops for Reproductive Hormones
- Females: Negative feedback (e.g., estrogen regulates FSH, LH) and positive feedback (e.g., estrogen surge triggers LH surge for ovulation) regulate menstrual cycle.
- Males: Negative feedback (e.g., testosterone regulates LH, GnRH) maintains testosterone levels.
Menstrual Cycle
- Cyclical process in females prepping for pregnancy (typically 28 days).
- Phases: Menstrual, follicular, ovulation, luteal.
STIs and Infertility
- STIs (e.g., chlamydia, gonorrhea, HPV) can lead to infertility if left untreated.
Embryonic/Fetal Growth and Development
- Stages: Zygote, embryo (organogenesis), fetus (growth and maturation).
- Sensitive period for teratogens during embryonic development.
Teratogens
- Teratogens: Substances causing birth defects.
- Examples: Drugs, infections, environmental exposures, maternal conditions.
- Prevention: Avoidance of teratogens, prenatal care, vaccinations.
ART (Assisted Reproductive Technologies)
- In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI), Egg/Sperm Donation.
Birth Control
- Oral contraceptives, condoms, intrauterine devices (IUDs).
Module 4 - Genetics
Genetics Terminology
- Definitions of terms: Gene, allele, genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant, recessive, genetic mutation, carrier, Punnett square, codominance, incomplete dominance, sex-linked genes, genetic drift.
Mendel’s Pea Plant Traits
- Seven traits of peas studied by Mendel (example traits: seed shape, seed color, height, flower color...).
Monohybrid/Dihybrid Crosses
- Monohybrid crosses are used to track inheritance patterns for one trait.
- Dihybrid crosses are used to study inheritance patterns for two traits.
Blood Typing
- Blood type inheritance pattern.
Human Genome Project
- The Human Genome Project's aims and achievements.
Sex-Linked Traits (Hemophilia, Color Blindness)
- Inheritance patterns for sex-linked traits.
Pedigrees/Karyotypes
- Pedigrees and karyotypes to track genetic traits through generations.
Module 5 - DNA
DNA Structure
- DNA Structure: Nucleotides (phosphate, sugar, base), base pairing (A-T, C-G), double helix, antiparallel strands.
DNA Replication
- Enzymes in DNA replication: Helicase, single-strand binding proteins, DNA gyrase, RNA primase, DNA polymerase III, DNA polymerase I, DNA ligase.
- Process: Unwinding, primer synthesis, elongation, and termination.
DNA vs. RNA
- Differences in structure and function between DNA and RNA.
Protein Synthesis
- Transcription: DNA converted to mRNA
- Translation: mRNA converted to protein.
- mRNA, tRNA, rRNA's role.
Genetic Engineering and Hemophilia
- Genetic engineering techniques, including recombinant DNA technology and gene editing.
- Hemophilia: Causes, symptoms, and treatments.
Mutations and Genetic Diseases
- Types of mutations: Gene mutations (point mutations, insertions/deletions) and chromosomal mutations (deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations).
- Effects of mutations on DNA and protein synthesis.
Studying That Suits You
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Test your knowledge on the types of neurons, their functions, and the physiological processes involved in nervous system functions. This quiz covers key concepts such as resting potential, neurotransmitter roles, and the anatomy of the central nervous system.